[{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/american-inventors-and-innovators","id":"american-inventors-and-innovators","title":"American Inventors and Innovators","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"People who invented, built or improved things that changed American life.","tags":["inventors","innovation","biography"],"frontLabel":"Person","backLabel":"Known for","cards":[["Benjamin Franklin","Lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, and a public library"],["Eli Whitney","Cotton gin (1793) and ideas about interchangeable parts"],["Robert Fulton","Made steamboats practical, starting with the Clermont in 1807"],["Samuel Morse","Telegraph and Morse code, 1830s-1840s"],["Cyrus McCormick","Mechanical reaper for harvesting grain"],["John Deere","Steel plow for breaking prairie soil"],["Elias Howe","Sewing machine with a lockstitch, 1846"],["Isaac Singer","Improved and sold sewing machines widely"],["Elisha Otis","Safety elevator, shown in 1854"],["Charles Goodyear","Vulcanized rubber"],["Samuel Colt","Revolver and mass production methods"],["Alexander Graham Bell","Telephone, patented in 1876"],["Thomas Edison","Phonograph, practical light bulb and research laboratories"],["Nikola Tesla","Worked on alternating current electric systems"],["George Westinghouse","Air brake for trains and AC power systems"],["Lewis Latimer","Improved the carbon filament for light bulbs"],["Granville Woods","Black inventor with many patents for railway and electrical devices"],["Elijah McCoy","Invented lubricating devices for steam engines"],["Madam C. J. Walker","Built a hair care business and became a self-made millionaire"],["George Washington Carver","Scientist who promoted peanuts and crop rotation"],["Booker T. Washington","Founded Tuskegee Institute"],["Wright brothers","Made the first powered airplane flight in 1903 at Kitty Hawk"],["Henry Ford","Model T and the moving assembly line"],["George Eastman","Simple Kodak cameras and roll film"],["Garrett Morgan","Improved traffic signal and a safety hood"],["Charles Drew","Developed blood banking methods"],["Percy Julian","Chemist who made medicines from plants"],["Hedy Lamarr","Actress who co-invented a frequency-hopping idea used later in wireless tech"],["Grace Hopper","Helped create early programming languages"],["Steve Jobs","Co-founder of Apple; helped popularize personal computers"],["Bill Gates","Co-founder of Microsoft"],["Jonas Salk","Developed a polio vaccine, 1955"],["Albert Sabin","Developed an oral polio vaccine"],["Robert Goddard","Launched the first liquid-fueled rocket in 1926"],["Philo Farnsworth","Demonstrated all-electronic television in 1927"],["Lee de Forest","Invented the audion vacuum tube, important for radio"],["Mary Anderson","Invented the windshield wiper in 1903"],["Josephine Cochrane","Invented the dishwasher in 1886"],["Margaret Knight","Invented the flat-bottomed paper bag machine"],["Stephanie Kwolek","Invented Kevlar, a super strong fiber"],["Ruth Handler","Created the Barbie doll"],["Earle Dickson","Invented the Band-Aid for his wife in 1920"],["Walter Hunt","Invented the safety pin in 1849"],["Ole Evinrude","Invented the outboard motor"],["Willis Carrier","Invented modern air conditioning"],["Clarence Birdseye","Developed quick-freezing for foods"],["Gideon Sundback","Improved the zipper"],["James Naismith","Invented basketball in 1891"],["Frederick McKinley Jones","Invented refrigeration units for trucks"],["Katherine Johnson","Calculated flight paths for NASA"],["Mark Dean","Co-developed key IBM PC technologies"],["Jerry Lawson","Helped develop the first cartridge-based video game console"],["Ralph Baer","Called the father of video games for the Magnavox Odyssey"],["Wilbur Wright","Older Wright brother who piloted first flights"],["Orville Wright","Younger Wright brother, who piloted the first flight"],["Patent","Government record giving an inventor exclusive rights to an invention"],["Patent Office","Government office that registers patents; the first US patent law was in 1790"],["Smithsonian","Museums that preserve American inventions"],["Innovation","A new idea, method or device"],["Prototype","An early test version of an invention"],["Franklin's kite experiment","1752 test linking lightning to electricity"],["Telegraph line to California","Completed in 1861"],["First transcontinental telephone call","Made in 1915"],["Apollo program","NASA program that landed astronauts on the Moon between 1969 and 1972"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas","id":"ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas","title":"Ancient Civilizations of the Americas","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"The Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Inca and other great societies of Mesoamerica and South America.","tags":["maya","aztec","inca","olmec"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Mesoamerica","Region of Mexico and Central America where several great civilizations arose"],["Olmec","Earliest known Mesoamerican civilization, about 1200-400 BCE, known for giant stone heads"],["Colossal heads","Huge carved stone heads made by the Olmec"],["Mother culture","Nickname for the Olmec, who influenced later peoples"],["Maize (corn)","The most important crop in Mesoamerica"],["Maya","Civilization of southern Mexico, Guatemala and Belize, with city-states and writing"],["Classic Maya","The peak of Maya civilization, about 250-900 CE"],["Tikal","Large Maya city in Guatemala with tall temple pyramids"],["Chichen Itza","Maya city in Yucatan with the pyramid El Castillo"],["Palenque","Maya city in southern Mexico known for its Temple of the Inscriptions"],["Pakal the Great","Long-ruling king of Palenque"],["Maya glyphs","Writing system combining pictures and sounds"],["Maya calendar","Used interlocking cycles including a 260-day count and a 365-day year"],["Long Count","Maya system for counting days from a starting date"],["Maya zero","Maya used a symbol for zero in their math"],["Maya astronomy","Observed Venus, the Sun and Moon carefully"],["Popol Vuh","K'iche' Maya sacred book with creation stories"],["Cacao","Maya and Aztec used cacao beans for chocolate drinks and as money"],["Ball game","Mesoamerican game with a rubber ball played in stone courts"],["Maya collapse","Many southern lowland cities were abandoned after about 800-900 CE"],["Teotihuacan","Huge city near Mexico City with the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, flourished 100-550 CE"],["Toltec","Culture whose capital, Tula, flourished after Teotihuacan"],["Aztec (Mexica)","People who founded Tenochtitlan around 1325"],["Tenochtitlan","Aztec capital on an island in Lake Texcoco, now Mexico City"],["Chinampas","Floating garden plots the Aztec built in shallow lakes"],["Causeway","Raised road across water, used to reach Tenochtitlan"],["Templo Mayor","Great temple in the center of Tenochtitlan"],["Moctezuma II","Aztec ruler when the Spanish arrived in 1519"],["Hernan Cortes","Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire"],["La Malinche","Nahua woman who served as Cortes's interpreter"],["Triple Alliance","Aztec league of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan"],["Tribute","Goods demanded from conquered peoples"],["Nahuatl","Aztec language, still spoken by many today"],["Tlaxcalans","Neighbors of the Aztecs who allied with the Spanish"],["Fall of Tenochtitlan (1521)","Spanish and allies captured the city after a long siege and an outbreak of smallpox"],["Quetzalcoatl","Feathered serpent god"],["Huitzilopochtli","Aztec god of the sun and war"],["Tlaloc","Aztec god of rain"],["Codex","Folded book painted by Aztec or Maya scribes"],["Inca Empire","Largest empire in the Americas, in the Andes, peaked in the 1400s-1500s"],["Cusco","Inca capital in Peru"],["Pachacuti","Ruler who began the Inca's great expansion in the 1430s"],["Sapa Inca","Title of the Inca emperor"],["Machu Picchu","Inca mountain estate in Peru, built about 1450"],["Quipu","Inca record-keeping device of knotted strings"],["Inca road system","Thousands of miles of roads across the Andes"],["Chasqui","Inca relay runners who carried messages"],["Mit'a","Inca labor service owed to the state"],["Terrace farming","Stepped fields on mountainsides in the Andes"],["Potato","Crop first domesticated in the Andes"],["Llama","Pack animal of the Andes"],["Alpaca","Animal raised for soft wool in the Andes"],["Quechua","Language of the Inca, still spoken by millions"],["Atahualpa","Last independent Inca emperor, captured by Pizarro in 1532"],["Francisco Pizarro","Spanish conquistador who defeated the Inca"],["Inca bridges","Rope suspension bridges woven from grass"],["Norte Chico (Caral)","One of the oldest civilizations in the Americas, in coastal Peru, about 3000 BCE"],["Chavin","Early Andean culture known for temple center Chavin de Huantar"],["Nazca","Peruvian culture famous for giant desert line drawings"],["Nazca Lines","Huge figures of animals and shapes etched into the desert"],["Moche","Peruvian culture known for pottery and gold work"],["Tiwanaku","Andean city near Lake Titicaca"],["Lake Titicaca","High-elevation lake on the Peru-Bolivia border"],["Mound Builders","Ancient peoples in what is now the US who built earthen mounds"],["Cahokia","Largest city north of Mexico before 1492, near St. Louis"],["Ancestral Puebloans","Southwestern builders of cliff dwellings"],["Tainos","Indigenous people of the Caribbean who met Columbus"],["Land bridge theory","Idea that early people crossed from Asia to the Americas over Beringia"],["Beringia","Land that once connected Siberia and Alaska"],["Clovis points","Stone spear tips found at sites across North America"],["Domestication","Mesoamericans bred corn from a wild grass called teosinte"],["Turquoise and jade","Highly valued stones in Mesoamerica"],["Obsidian","Volcanic glass used for sharp tools"],["Sacrifice","Religious offerings, including human offerings, were part of Aztec and Maya ritual"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/famous-historical-documents","id":"famous-historical-documents","title":"Famous Historical Documents","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"Charters, declarations, laws and speeches that shaped history, and what each one said.","tags":["documents","magna carta","declaration","constitution"],"frontLabel":"Document","backLabel":"What it is","cards":[["Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BCE)","Babylonian law code carved on a stone pillar"],["Cyrus Cylinder (539 BCE)","Persian clay cylinder describing Cyrus's rule and respect for local customs"],["Twelve Tables (c. 450 BCE)","Rome's first written laws, displayed in the Forum"],["Edicts of Ashoka (c. 250 BCE)","Messages carved on pillars by the Maurya emperor about justice and compassion"],["Rosetta Stone (196 BCE)","Decree in three scripts that helped decode hieroglyphs"],["Edict of Milan (313 CE)","Roman proclamation of religious tolerance"],["Justinian Code (529-534)","Byzantine collection of Roman laws that shaped later legal systems"],["Constitution of Medina (c. 622)","Early agreement among communities in Medina"],["Domesday Book (1086)","English survey of land and property ordered by William the Conqueror"],["Magna Carta (1215)","English charter limiting the king's power and protecting rights"],["Golden Bull (1222)","Hungarian charter limiting royal power, similar to Magna Carta"],["Gutenberg Bible (c. 1455)","First major book printed in Europe with movable type"],["95 Theses (1517)","Martin Luther's list of church criticisms"],["Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)","Spain and Portugal divided new lands outside Europe"],["Mayflower Compact (1620)","Agreement by Pilgrims to govern themselves fairly"],["Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639)","One of the first written constitutions in the colonies"],["Petition of Right (1628)","English document limiting the king's power to tax and jail without cause"],["English Bill of Rights (1689)","Guaranteed Parliament's powers and individual rights"],["Two Treatises of Government (1689)","John Locke's work on natural rights and consent of the governed"],["Common Sense (1776)","Thomas Paine's pamphlet arguing for independence"],["Declaration of Independence (1776)","Announced the colonies' freedom and the ideas of equality and rights"],["Articles of Confederation (1781)","First US government plan"],["Northwest Ordinance (1787)","Set rules for new territories and banned slavery north of the Ohio"],["US Constitution (1787)","Framework of the US government"],["Federalist Papers (1787-88)","Essays defending the Constitution"],["Bill of Rights (1791)","First ten amendments protecting individual rights"],["Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789)","French statement of rights and equality under the law"],["A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)","Mary Wollstonecraft's argument for women's education and equality"],["Washington's Farewell Address (1796)","Warned about political division and foreign entanglements"],["Monroe Doctrine (1823)","Warned Europe against new colonies in the Americas"],["Declaration of Sentiments (1848)","Seneca Falls document calling for women's equality"],["Communist Manifesto (1848)","Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels's pamphlet about class struggle"],["Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)","Ended the Mexican-American War"],["Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)","Novel that increased opposition to slavery"],["Emancipation Proclamation (1863)","Lincoln's order freeing enslaved people in rebelling states"],["Gettysburg Address (1863)","Lincoln's short speech about equality and 'government of the people'"],["13th Amendment (1865)","Ended slavery in the United States"],["14th Amendment (1868)","Citizenship and equal protection for all persons born in the US"],["15th Amendment (1870)","Gave Black men the right to vote"],["19th Amendment (1920)","Gave women the right to vote"],["Origin of Species (1859)","Charles Darwin's book on evolution by natural selection"],["Balfour Declaration (1917)","British letter supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine"],["Fourteen Points (1918)","Woodrow Wilson's plan for post-WWI peace"],["Treaty of Versailles (1919)","Peace treaty ending WWI with Germany"],["Atlantic Charter (1941)","Churchill and Roosevelt's statement of war aims"],["Four Freedoms (1941)","FDR's speech on freedom of speech, worship, from want and from fear"],["UN Charter (1945)","Founding document of the United Nations"],["Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)","UN statement of rights for all people"],["Brown v. Board of Education (1954)","Supreme Court decision against school segregation"],["Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963)","Martin Luther King Jr.'s defense of nonviolent protest"],["I Have a Dream (1963)","King's speech at the March on Washington"],["Civil Rights Act (1964)","Outlawed segregation in public places and job discrimination"],["Voting Rights Act (1965)","Protected voting rights for Black citizens"],["Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)","Banned discrimination against people with disabilities"],["Silent Spring (1962)","Rachel Carson's book that sparked the environmental movement"],["The Diary of a Young Girl","Anne Frank's diary, published in 1947"],["Wealth of Nations (1776)","Adam Smith's book on markets and trade"],["Leviathan (1651)","Thomas Hobbes's book on government and order"],["The Social Contract (1762)","Rousseau's book on the general will"],["The Prince (1532)","Machiavelli's guide to ruling, published after his death"],["Dead Sea Scrolls","Ancient manuscripts found in caves near the Dead Sea starting in 1947"],["Treaty of Paris (1783)","Ended the American Revolution"],["Treaty of Westphalia (1648)","Ended the Thirty Years' War"],["Great Law of Peace","Haudenosaunee constitution, some influence on early American ideas is debated"],["Cherokee Constitution (1827)","Written constitution of the Cherokee Nation"],["Sequoyah's syllabary","Cherokee writing system created in the 1820s"],["Indian Citizenship Act (1924)","Granted citizenship to Native Americans born in the US"],["Emancipation Manifesto (1861)","Russian tsar Alexander II freed the serfs"],["Meiji Constitution (1889)","Japan's first modern constitution"],["Constitution of India (1950)","World's longest written national constitution"],["Magna Carta's clause 39","No free person to be punished without lawful judgment, a root of due process"],["Habeas corpus","Principle that you cannot be held without legal charges; strengthened by England's 1679 Act"],["Bill of Rights (1689) vs 1791","England's came first; the American one added rights to the US Constitution"],["Homestead Act (1862)","Offered free land to settlers who farmed it"],["Pendleton Act (1883)","Created merit-based jobs in the federal government"],["Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)","Law against monopolies"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/famous-wars-and-battles","id":"famous-wars-and-battles","title":"Famous Wars and Battles","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"Major conflicts from ancient times to the twentieth century, with where, when and why they mattered.","tags":["wars","battles","military history"],"frontLabel":"War or battle","backLabel":"Key facts","cards":[["Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)","Athens defeated a Persian invasion in Greece"],["Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE)","Small Greek force held a mountain pass against Persia"],["Battle of Salamis (480 BCE)","Greek fleet defeated the Persian navy"],["Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE)","Sparta defeated Athens"],["Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE)","Alexander the Great defeated Persian king Darius III"],["Punic Wars (264-146 BCE)","Rome defeated Carthage in three wars"],["Battle of Cannae (216 BCE)","Hannibal's great victory over Rome"],["Battle of Zama (202 BCE)","Scipio defeated Hannibal"],["Battle of Actium (31 BCE)","Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra"],["Battle of Hastings (1066)","William of Normandy won England"],["Battle of Tours (732)","Charles Martel stopped a Muslim army in France"],["First Crusade (1096-1099)","Christian knights captured Jerusalem"],["Mongol conquests","Genghis Khan and successors built the largest land empire in the 1200s"],["Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)","England and France fought; Joan of Arc rallied the French"],["Battle of Agincourt (1415)","English longbows beat French knights"],["Fall of Constantinople (1453)","Ottomans took the Byzantine capital"],["Spanish Armada (1588)","English defeated Spain's invasion fleet"],["Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)","Religious and political war in central Europe"],["French and Indian War (1754-1763)","Britain defeated France in North America"],["Battle of Lexington and Concord (1775)","First fights of the American Revolution"],["Battle of Saratoga (1777)","American victory that brought France into the war"],["Siege of Yorktown (1781)","Last major battle of the American Revolution"],["Battle of Trafalgar (1805)","British Admiral Nelson defeated the French and Spanish fleets"],["Battle of Austerlitz (1805)","Napoleon's greatest victory, over Russia and Austria"],["Battle of Waterloo (1815)","Napoleon's final defeat"],["War of 1812","US versus Britain; ended in a stalemate in 1815"],["Battle of New Orleans (1815)","Andrew Jackson defeated British troops"],["Battle of the Alamo (1836)","Texas defenders fell to Mexican forces"],["Mexican-American War (1846-48)","US won California and the Southwest"],["Crimean War (1853-56)","Britain, France and the Ottomans fought Russia; Florence Nightingale nursed there"],["Battle of Fort Sumter (1861)","First shots of the American Civil War"],["Battle of Gettysburg (1863)","Turning point of the Civil War in the East"],["Siege of Vicksburg (1863)","Union victory that took control of the Mississippi River"],["Appomattox (1865)","Lee's surrender to Grant"],["Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)","Prussia defeated France and united Germany"],["Battle of Little Bighorn (1876)","Lakota and Cheyenne defeated Custer's troops"],["Spanish-American War (1898)","US gained Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines"],["Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)","Japan defeated Russia"],["Battle of Verdun (1916)","Long battle between France and Germany in WWI"],["Battle of the Somme (1916)","British offensive in WWI with heavy losses"],["Battle of Britain (1940)","RAF stopped German air attacks"],["Dunkirk evacuation (1940)","Rescue of Allied troops from France by many boats"],["Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43)","Soviet victory on the Eastern Front"],["Battle of Midway (1942)","US Navy victory in the Pacific"],["Battle of El Alamein (1942)","British victory in North Africa"],["D-Day (June 6, 1944)","Allied landings in Normandy"],["Battle of the Bulge (1944-45)","Germany's last big offensive in the West"],["Iwo Jima (1945)","US Marines captured the island"],["Korean War (1950-53)","UN forces helped South Korea against North Korea"],["Vietnam War (1955-75)","Long conflict between North and South Vietnam; the US supported the South"],["Six-Day War (1967)","Israel and neighboring Arab states fought in June 1967"],["Gulf War (1991)","Coalition forces freed Kuwait after Iraq's invasion"],["Chinese Civil War (1927-1949)","Fighting between Nationalists and Communists, which the Communists won"],["Russian Civil War (1917-1922)","Reds under the Bolsheviks defeated Whites"],["American Civil War (1861-1865)","Union defeated the Confederacy; slavery ended"],["English Civil War (1642-1651)","Parliament defeated the king, Charles I"],["Wars of the Roses (1455-1487)","English families York and Lancaster fought for the throne"],["Boer War (1899-1902)","Britain fought two Boer republics in South Africa"],["Battle of Adwa (1896)","Ethiopia defeated Italy"],["Battle of Plassey (1757)","British East India Company victory that brought it power in Bengal"],["Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60)","Britain defeated China, forcing trade concessions"],["Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)","Uprising against foreign influence in China"],["Battle of Lepanto (1571)","Christian fleet defeated the Ottoman navy at sea"],["Siege of Vienna (1683)","Defeat of Ottoman forces outside Vienna"],["Seven Years' War (1756-1763)","Global war involving Britain, France, Prussia and others"],["Battle of Bunker Hill (1775)","British won but lost many men"],["Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)","William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh's followers"],["Battle of San Jacinto (1836)","Texans defeated Mexican forces and won independence"],["Battle of Antietam (1862)","Bloodiest day of the Civil War"],["Pearl Harbor (1941)","Japanese surprise attack that brought the US into WWII"],["Siege of Leningrad (1941-44)","Long German siege of the Soviet city"],["Battle of Okinawa (1945)","Last major battle of the Pacific"],["Fall of Saigon (1975)","End of the Vietnam War"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/famous-women-in-history","id":"famous-women-in-history","title":"Famous Women in History","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"Women who led, discovered, created and changed the world.","tags":["women","biography","famous people"],"frontLabel":"Who","backLabel":"Known for","cards":[["Hatshepsut","Egyptian woman who ruled as pharaoh and sent a great trading expedition to Punt"],["Cleopatra VII","Last active queen of Egypt, who ruled with great political skill"],["Boudica","Queen of the Iceni who led a revolt against Roman rule in Britain around 60 CE"],["Wu Zetian","Only woman to rule China as emperor, in the 600s-700s"],["Hypatia","Mathematician, astronomer and teacher in Alexandria around 400 CE"],["Murasaki Shikibu","Japanese author of The Tale of Genji, often called the first novel"],["Eleanor of Aquitaine","Powerful medieval queen of France and England"],["Joan of Arc","French teenager who helped lead the army to victories in 1429"],["Isabella I of Castile","Spanish queen who funded Columbus's voyage"],["Elizabeth I","Queen of England, 1558-1603, during a time of great arts and exploration"],["Queen Nzinga","African queen who defended her lands in Angola against the Portuguese"],["Pocahontas","Powhatan woman connected to Jamestown in the early 1600s"],["Sacagawea","Shoshone guide for the Lewis and Clark expedition"],["Catherine the Great","Russian empress, 1762-1796, who expanded Russia"],["Maria Theresa","Austrian ruler in the 1700s"],["Marie Curie","Won Nobel Prizes in both physics and chemistry; discovered polonium and radium"],["Florence Nightingale","Founder of modern nursing, who improved hospital care"],["Clara Barton","Civil War nurse and founder of the American Red Cross"],["Harriet Tubman","Led many people to freedom on the Underground Railroad"],["Sojourner Truth","Former slave and powerful speaker for abolition and women's rights"],["Susan B. Anthony","Leader of the US women's suffrage movement"],["Elizabeth Cady Stanton","Organized the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848"],["Harriet Beecher Stowe","Author of Uncle Tom's Cabin"],["Dorothea Dix","Reformer who improved care for people with mental illness"],["Emily Dickinson","American poet of nearly 1,800 poems"],["Jane Austen","English novelist of Pride and Prejudice"],["Mary Shelley","Author of Frankenstein, written when she was 18-19"],["Ada Lovelace","Wrote the first computer program idea for Babbage's engine in the 1840s"],["Queen Victoria","British queen from 1837 to 1901, giving her name to an era"],["Queen Liliuokalani","Last queen of Hawaii"],["Emmeline Pankhurst","British leader of the movement for women's right to vote"],["Jane Addams","Founded Hull House; won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931"],["Ida B. Wells","Journalist and activist who exposed lynching and fought for justice"],["Helen Keller","Deaf and blind author and activist who graduated from college"],["Anne Sullivan","Helen Keller's teacher"],["Maria Montessori","Italian educator who developed a child-centered teaching method"],["Amelia Earhart","First woman to fly solo across the Atlantic, in 1932"],["Bessie Coleman","First Black woman to earn a pilot's license, in 1921"],["Eleanor Roosevelt","First lady who worked for human rights"],["Frances Perkins","First woman in a US cabinet; helped create Social Security"],["Mary McLeod Bethune","Educator who founded a school that became Bethune-Cookman University"],["Zora Neale Hurston","Harlem Renaissance author of Their Eyes Were Watching God"],["Frida Kahlo","Mexican painter known for vivid self-portraits"],["Georgia O'Keeffe","American painter of flowers, desert scenes and skyscrapers"],["Marian Anderson","Opera singer who performed at the Lincoln Memorial in 1939"],["Rosa Parks","Her 1955 bus protest helped spark the Montgomery Bus Boycott"],["Anne Frank","Wrote a diary while hiding from the Nazis"],["Mother Teresa","Nun who cared for the poor in Kolkata, India"],["Indira Gandhi","First woman prime minister of India"],["Golda Meir","Israel's first woman prime minister"],["Margaret Thatcher","Britain's first woman prime minister"],["Wangari Maathai","Kenyan environmentalist who won the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize"],["Rachel Carson","Author of Silent Spring (1962), which helped start the environmental movement"],["Jane Goodall","Studied chimpanzees in Tanzania for decades"],["Dian Fossey","Studied mountain gorillas in Rwanda"],["Rosalind Franklin","Her X-ray images helped reveal the structure of DNA"],["Barbara McClintock","Won a Nobel Prize for discovering jumping genes in corn"],["Katherine Johnson","NASA mathematician whose calculations helped astronauts reach orbit"],["Dorothy Vaughan","NASA mathematician and early computer programming leader"],["Mary Jackson","First Black woman engineer at NASA"],["Grace Hopper","Computer scientist who helped create early programming languages"],["Sally Ride","First American woman in space"],["Valentina Tereshkova","First woman to travel in space, in 1963"],["Mae Jemison","First Black woman in space"],["Ruth Bader Ginsburg","Supreme Court justice who fought for equal treatment of women"],["Sandra Day O'Connor","First woman on the US Supreme Court"],["Sonia Sotomayor","First Latina on the Supreme Court"],["Shirley Chisholm","First Black woman elected to the US Congress, in 1968"],["Billie Jean King","Tennis champion who fought for equal pay for women athletes"],["Wilma Rudolph","Overcame polio to win three Olympic gold medals in 1960"],["Malala Yousafzai","Pakistani education activist, youngest Nobel Peace Prize winner"],["Greta Thunberg","Swedish climate activist who began protesting in 2018"],["Maya Angelou","Poet and author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings"],["Toni Morrison","Novelist who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1993"],["Dolores Huerta","Co-founded the United Farm Workers"],["Fannie Lou Hamer","Voting rights activist from Mississippi"],["Temple Grandin","Scientist who speaks about autism and designs humane animal facilities"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/historical-figures-who-am-i","id":"historical-figures-who-am-i","title":"Historical Figures: Who Am I?","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Clues about famous people from around the world; guess who it is.","tags":["people","biography","famous figures"],"frontLabel":"Clue","backLabel":"Who","cards":[["I ruled Egypt as a woman and sent ships to the land of Punt.","Hatshepsut"],["I built the Great Pyramid at Giza.","Khufu"],["I wrote one of the first known law codes in Babylon.","Hammurabi"],["I taught by asking questions in Athens and was Plato's teacher.","Socrates"],["I tutored Alexander the Great and wrote on logic, science and politics.","Aristotle"],["I conquered Persia and spread Greek culture to India's border.","Alexander the Great"],["I crossed the Alps with elephants to attack Rome.","Hannibal"],["I led the Roman army in Gaul and was killed on the Ides of March.","Julius Caesar"],["I became Rome's first emperor in 27 BCE.","Augustus"],["I united China and began the Terra-cotta Army.","Qin Shi Huang"],["I was a teacher in China who stressed respect, learning and family.","Confucius"],["I was a prince in India who became the Buddha.","Siddhartha Gautama"],["I ruled the Maurya Empire and turned to peace after a bloody war.","Ashoka"],["I am the Prophet of Islam, born in Mecca.","Muhammad"],["I was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800.","Charlemagne"],["I won England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.","William the Conqueror"],["I was a French teenager who led an army in 1429.","Joan of Arc"],["I was a Mongol leader who built the largest land empire.","Genghis Khan"],["I ruled Mali and made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324.","Mansa Musa"],["I traveled to China and wrote about it in the 1200s.","Marco Polo"],["I painted the Mona Lisa and sketched flying machines.","Leonardo da Vinci"],["I painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling and carved the David.","Michelangelo"],["I printed Bibles with movable type in Europe around 1450.","Johannes Gutenberg"],["I wrote 95 theses and began the Reformation.","Martin Luther"],["I first sailed across the Atlantic for Spain in 1492.","Christopher Columbus"],["My crew first sailed around the world, though I died on the way.","Ferdinand Magellan"],["I conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521.","Hernan Cortes"],["I was Queen of England during the Spanish Armada.","Elizabeth I"],["I wrote Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet.","William Shakespeare"],["I used a telescope to see Jupiter's moons.","Galileo Galilei"],["I explained gravity and the laws of motion.","Isaac Newton"],["I was the Sun King of France.","Louis XIV"],["I wrote that people have natural rights to life, liberty and property.","John Locke"],["I led the Haitian Revolution.","Toussaint Louverture"],["I crowned myself emperor of the French in 1804 and lost at Waterloo.","Napoleon Bonaparte"],["I led the fight for independence in northern South America.","Simon Bolivar"],["I was the British queen for over 63 years and an era is named after me.","Queen Victoria"],["I founded modern nursing in the Crimean War.","Florence Nightingale"],["I developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.","Charles Darwin"],["I discovered radium and won two Nobel Prizes.","Marie Curie"],["I developed the theory of relativity.","Albert Einstein"],["I led India to independence through nonviolence.","Mahatma Gandhi"],["I led Britain through most of World War II.","Winston Churchill"],["I was a South African leader jailed for 27 years who became president.","Nelson Mandela"],["I led the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917.","Vladimir Lenin"],["I was the first president of the United States.","George Washington"],["I wrote the Declaration of Independence.","Thomas Jefferson"],["I flew a kite in a storm and signed the Constitution.","Benjamin Franklin"],["I wrote most of the Federalist Papers and later became the fourth president.","James Madison"],["I was the first Treasury Secretary and later died in a duel.","Alexander Hamilton"],["I guided Lewis and Clark.","Sacagawea"],["I was the seventh president and fought at New Orleans.","Andrew Jackson"],["I was the Shawnee leader who built a Native alliance.","Tecumseh"],["I escaped slavery and led others on the Underground Railroad.","Harriet Tubman"],["I escaped slavery, wrote an autobiography, and spoke against it.","Frederick Douglass"],["I was president during the Civil War.","Abraham Lincoln"],["I was the Confederate general who surrendered at Appomattox.","Robert E. Lee"],["I led the Union armies and became president.","Ulysses S. Grant"],["I founded the American Red Cross.","Clara Barton"],["I organized the Seneca Falls Convention.","Elizabeth Cady Stanton"],["I campaigned for women's right to vote and was arrested for voting in 1872.","Susan B. Anthony"],["I invented the practical light bulb and the phonograph.","Thomas Edison"],["I patented the telephone in 1876.","Alexander Graham Bell"],["We built and flew the first airplane at Kitty Hawk.","The Wright brothers"],["I led the Lakota at the Battle of Little Bighorn.","Sitting Bull"],["I was the Nez Perce leader who said I would fight no more forever.","Chief Joseph"],["I was the 26th president and a Rough Rider.","Theodore Roosevelt"],["I founded Hull House in Chicago.","Jane Addams"],["I was president during World War I.","Woodrow Wilson"],["I flew solo across the Atlantic in 1927.","Charles Lindbergh"],["I was elected four times and started the New Deal.","Franklin D. Roosevelt"],["I was the first lady who worked for human rights.","Eleanor Roosevelt"],["I became president when FDR died in 1945 and ordered the atomic bombs used.","Harry S. Truman"],["I led Allied forces in Europe and became president in 1953.","Dwight D. Eisenhower"],["I refused to give up my bus seat in Montgomery.","Rosa Parks"],["I said 'I have a dream' at the March on Washington.","Martin Luther King Jr."],["I was the first Black player in modern major league baseball.","Jackie Robinson"],["I integrated an elementary school in New Orleans at age six.","Ruby Bridges"],["I was a young president, 35th, and faced the Cuban Missile Crisis.","John F. Kennedy"],["I was the first person to walk on the Moon.","Neil Armstrong"],["I was the first Black justice on the Supreme Court.","Thurgood Marshall"],["I was the first woman on the Supreme Court.","Sandra Day O'Connor"],["I organized farm workers with Dolores Huerta.","Cesar Chavez"],["I was the first American woman in space.","Sally Ride"],["I was the first Black president of the United States.","Barack Obama"],["I was a Pakistani girl who became the youngest Nobel Peace Prize winner.","Malala Yousafzai"],["I discovered that germs cause disease and invented a way to make milk safer.","Louis Pasteur"],["I created the smallpox vaccine in 1796.","Edward Jenner"],["I discovered penicillin.","Alexander Fleming"],["I studied chimpanzees in Tanzania.","Jane Goodall"],["I wrote Silent Spring about pesticides.","Rachel Carson"],["I proposed that Earth moves around the Sun.","Nicolaus Copernicus"],["I described the planets' elliptical orbits.","Johannes Kepler"],["I wrote Pride and Prejudice.","Jane Austen"],["I wrote A Christmas Carol and Oliver Twist.","Charles Dickens"],["I wrote Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn.","Mark Twain"],["I wrote the Gettysburg Address.","Abraham Lincoln"],["I wrote the Communist Manifesto with Engels.","Karl Marx"],["I wrote The Wealth of Nations.","Adam Smith"],["I wrote Common Sense in 1776.","Thomas Paine"],["I said 'Give me liberty, or give me death!'","Patrick Henry"],["I rode at night to warn that British troops were coming.","Paul Revere"],["I was a Patriot spy who regretted having only one life to give.","Nathan Hale"],["I led the Continental Army at Valley Forge.","George Washington"],["I helped Jefferson draft the Declaration and became the second president.","John Adams"],["I asked my husband to 'remember the ladies.'","Abigail Adams"],["I was a Wampanoag leader who made peace with the Pilgrims.","Massasoit"],["I taught the Pilgrims to plant corn.","Squanto"],["I was a captain at Jamestown who said those who do not work do not eat.","John Smith"],["I founded Pennsylvania as a Quaker colony.","William Penn"],["I founded Rhode Island and believed in religious freedom.","Roger Williams"],["I created the Cherokee writing system.","Sequoyah"],["I was a Cherokee leader who became principal chief in 1985.","Wilma Mankiller"],["I was the Apache leader who resisted removal.","Geronimo"],["I led the Texans to victory at San Jacinto.","Sam Houston"],["I was Hawaii's last queen.","Queen Liliuokalani"],["I wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin.","Harriet Beecher Stowe"],["I founded the Tuskegee Institute.","Booker T. Washington"],["I wrote about lynching and fought for justice as a journalist.","Ida B. Wells"],["I founded the first Montessori school in Rome.","Maria Montessori"],["I became deaf and blind as a baby and wrote books.","Helen Keller"],["I disappeared in 1937 while flying around the world.","Amelia Earhart"],["I won four gold medals at the 1936 Olympics.","Jesse Owens"],["I wrote a diary while in hiding in Amsterdam.","Anne Frank"],["I cared for the poor in Kolkata and won a Nobel Peace Prize.","Mother Teresa"],["I was Britain's first woman prime minister.","Margaret Thatcher"],["I was the Soviet leader who introduced glasnost.","Mikhail Gorbachev"],["I was the Kenyan woman who started the Green Belt Movement.","Wangari Maathai"],["I was a NASA mathematician who checked orbit calculations for John Glenn.","Katherine Johnson"],["I was the first person in space.","Yuri Gagarin"],["I was the first American to orbit Earth.","John Glenn"],["I was the first woman in space.","Valentina Tereshkova"],["I walked on the Moon with Neil Armstrong.","Buzz Aldrin"],["I was the Ethiopian emperor who defeated Italy at Adwa.","Menelik II"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/native-american-nations-history","id":"native-american-nations-history","title":"Native American Nations and History","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Peoples, homelands, cultures and key events in Native American history, told with respect.","tags":["native american","indigenous","tribes","cultures"],"frontLabel":"Nation or term","backLabel":"What to know","cards":[["Indigenous peoples","The first peoples of a land, here the Native peoples of the Americas"],["Native nation","A tribal community with its own government and culture"],["Sovereignty","The right of a nation to govern itself; many Native nations are sovereign within the US"],["Haudenosaunee (Iroquois)","Confederacy of six nations in the Northeast: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Tuscarora"],["Great Law of Peace","Haudenosaunee constitution that joined the nations in a league"],["Longhouse","Long bark-covered home shared by Haudenosaunee families"],["Three Sisters","Corn, beans and squash, grown together by many Native farmers"],["Wampanoag","People of southeastern Massachusetts who met the Pilgrims"],["Massasoit","Wampanoag leader who made a peace with the Pilgrims in 1621"],["Squanto (Tisquantum)","Patuxet man who helped the Pilgrims survive"],["Powhatan","Leader of a confederacy of Algonquian nations in Virginia"],["Algonquian","Large language family of eastern and central North America"],["Wigwam","Dome-shaped home covered with bark or mats, used by many Eastern nations"],["Lenape (Delaware)","People of the Delaware River area and Manhattan"],["Cherokee","Southeastern nation with its own writing system, created by Sequoyah"],["Sequoyah","Created the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s"],["Trail of Tears","Forced removal of Cherokee and other southeastern nations in the 1830s"],["Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole","Other nations forced west by removal, along with the Cherokee"],["Seminole","People who resisted removal in Florida in several wars"],["Indian Removal Act (1830)","Law that led to the forced move of Native nations to lands west of the Mississippi"],["Navajo (Diné)","Largest Native nation by population in the US, in the Southwest"],["Long Walk (1864)","Forced march of the Navajo to Bosque Redondo"],["Navajo Code Talkers","Marines in WWII who used the Navajo language as an unbreakable code"],["Hogan","Traditional Navajo home"],["Pueblo peoples","Hopi, Zuni, Taos and others who built villages of adobe in the Southwest"],["Adobe","Sun-dried brick made from clay and straw"],["Pueblo Revolt (1680)","Pueblo peoples drove the Spanish from New Mexico for about twelve years"],["Popé","Pueblo leader of the 1680 revolt"],["Hopi","Pueblo people of northern Arizona with ancient farming traditions"],["Apache","Southwestern nations including the Chiricahua"],["Geronimo","Apache leader who resisted forced removal"],["Lakota","Western Sioux people of the Great Plains"],["Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, Nakota)","Three related groups of Plains and prairie peoples"],["Tipi","Cone-shaped tent used by Plains peoples that could be moved easily"],["Bison","Plains peoples used nearly every part of the bison for food, tools and shelter"],["Sitting Bull","Lakota leader who resisted taking of the Black Hills"],["Crazy Horse","Lakota war leader at the Battle of the Little Bighorn"],["Red Cloud","Oglala Lakota leader who won a war in 1868 forcing the US to abandon forts"],["Wounded Knee (1890)","Massacre of Lakota people by the US Army in South Dakota"],["Cheyenne","Plains people who allied with the Arapaho and Lakota"],["Comanche","Skilled horse riders who dominated the southern plains"],["Crow (Apsáalooke)","Plains nation of Montana"],["Blackfoot","Plains nation in Montana and Alberta"],["Nez Perce","People of the Pacific Northwest plateau led by Chief Joseph in 1877"],["Chief Joseph","Nez Perce leader who led a long march toward Canada and said 'I will fight no more forever'"],["Totem pole","Carved cedar pole telling family stories, made by Northwest Coast peoples"],["Potlatch","Feast where hosts gave gifts, practiced by Northwest Coast nations"],["Tlingit, Haida, Kwakiutl","Northwest Coast peoples famed for carving and salmon fishing"],["Salmon","Key food for Northwest peoples"],["Inuit","Indigenous peoples of the Arctic, who built igloos for winter hunting shelters"],["Aleut (Unangan)","Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska"],["Kayak","Narrow hunting boat developed by Arctic peoples"],["Hawaiians","Native Hawaiians are the Indigenous people of Hawaii, with their own language and culture"],["Mississippian culture","Mound-building societies in the Mississippi Valley, about 800-1500 CE"],["Cahokia","Largest Mississippian city, near St. Louis, with Monks Mound"],["Hopewell","Ancient Ohio Valley culture known for earthworks and trade"],["Adena","Early mound-building culture in the Ohio Valley"],["Ancestral Puebloans","Ancient builders of cliff dwellings like Mesa Verde"],["Mesa Verde","Colorado site of cliff dwellings built about 1190-1280 CE"],["Chaco Canyon","Ancient Pueblo center in New Mexico with great houses"],["Mohawk","Easternmost nation of the Haudenosaunee"],["Pontiac's War (1763)","Native alliance rose against British forces in the Great Lakes"],["Tecumseh","Shawnee leader who tried to unite Native nations in the early 1800s"],["Tenskwatawa","Shawnee prophet, Tecumseh's brother"],["Joseph Brant","Mohawk leader who sided with the British in the Revolution"],["Worcester v. Georgia (1832)","Supreme Court said Georgia could not control Cherokee land"],["Reservation","Land reserved for Native nations by treaty or law"],["Indian Territory","Land in present Oklahoma where many removed nations were sent"],["Dawes Act (1887)","Broke up reservation land into individual plots, reducing Native land"],["Boarding schools","Schools that separated Native children from their families and languages"],["Indian Citizenship Act (1924)","Granted US citizenship to Native Americans born in the US"],["Indian Reorganization Act (1934)","Ended allotment and encouraged tribal self-government"],["American Indian Movement","Activist group formed in 1968"],["Indian Self-Determination Act (1975)","Gave tribes more control over programs and schools"],["Powwow","Gathering with dance, song and food celebrating Native culture"],["Oral tradition","Passing history and stories by speaking rather than writing"],["Language revitalization","Native communities are teaching and restoring their languages"],["Native American Heritage Month","November"],["Jim Thorpe","Sac and Fox athlete who won Olympic gold medals in 1912"],["Maria Tallchief","Osage ballerina, America's first major prima ballerina"],["Wilma Mankiller","First woman elected Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, in 1985"],["Deb Haaland","Laguna Pueblo member who was the first Native American US cabinet secretary"],["Charles Curtis","Kaw Nation member who served as vice president under Hoover"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-american-revolution","id":"us-american-revolution","title":"The American Revolution: Events and Dates","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"The taxes, protests, battles and documents that led the colonies to independence.","tags":["revolution","independence","1776"],"frontLabel":"Event or term","backLabel":"What it was","cards":[["Stamp Act (1765)","A British tax on printed paper that colonists protested loudly"],["No taxation without representation","Colonial slogan: colonists had no voice in the Parliament that taxed them"],["Sons of Liberty","Colonial protest group that opposed British taxes"],["Townshend Acts (1767)","British taxes on goods like glass, paper, paint and tea"],["Boston Massacre (1770)","British soldiers fired into a Boston crowd and killed five colonists"],["Crispus Attucks","A man of African and Native descent, the first person killed in the Boston Massacre"],["Tea Act (1773)","British law that helped the East India Company sell tea in the colonies"],["Boston Tea Party (1773)","Colonists dumped 342 chests of British tea into Boston Harbor"],["Intolerable Acts (1774)","Punishing British laws after the Tea Party; the colonists' name for them"],["First Continental Congress (1774)","Delegates from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia to answer British actions"],["Minutemen","Colonial militia ready to fight at a minute's notice"],["Paul Revere","Rider who warned of British troops marching in April 1775"],["Lexington and Concord (1775)","The first battles of the Revolutionary War, in Massachusetts"],["Shot heard 'round the world","Famous poem phrase about the first shot at Concord"],["Second Continental Congress","Met in 1775; ran the war and later voted for independence"],["Battle of Bunker Hill (1775)","A costly British win near Boston that showed colonists could fight well"],["George Washington","Chosen in 1775 to lead the Continental Army"],["Continental Army","The army formed by the Second Continental Congress"],["Common Sense (1776)","Thomas Paine's pamphlet arguing for independence in plain language"],["Thomas Paine","Writer of Common Sense and The American Crisis"],["Declaration of Independence","Adopted July 4, 1776; explained why the colonies were free from Britain"],["Thomas Jefferson","Main writer of the Declaration of Independence"],["Committee of Five","Group chosen to draft the Declaration: Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, Livingston"],["Loyalists","Colonists who stayed loyal to the British king"],["Patriots","Colonists who wanted independence"],["Redcoats","Nickname for British soldiers because of their uniforms"],["Hessians","German soldiers hired by Britain to fight in America"],["Washington crossing the Delaware","A surprise Christmas night 1776 crossing before the Battle of Trenton"],["Battle of Trenton (1776)","Washington's surprise win over Hessian troops in New Jersey"],["Battle of Saratoga (1777)","American victory in New York that was the turning point of the war"],["Valley Forge","Winter camp 1777-1778 in Pennsylvania where the army endured hardship and training"],["Baron von Steuben","Prussian officer who trained the Continental Army at Valley Forge"],["Marquis de Lafayette","French nobleman who joined Washington as a general"],["Alliance with France (1778)","France joined the war on the American side after Saratoga"],["Battle of Yorktown (1781)","Last major battle; British General Cornwallis surrendered"],["Lord Cornwallis","British general who surrendered at Yorktown"],["Treaty of Paris (1783)","Ended the war; Britain recognized American independence"],["Articles of Confederation","First US plan of government, with a weak national government"],["Abigail Adams","Wrote to John Adams asking him to 'remember the ladies' in new laws"],["John Adams","Massachusetts leader who supported independence and later became the second president"],["Benjamin Franklin","Diplomat who won French support in Paris"],["Samuel Adams","Boston leader and organizer of protests against British taxes"],["Patrick Henry","Virginian famous for 'Give me liberty, or give me death'"],["John Hancock","Congress president whose signature on the Declaration was large and bold"],["Nathan Hale","Patriot spy who said he regretted having only one life to give for his country"],["Molly Pitcher","Name for women who carried water to soldiers and sometimes helped load cannons"],["Deborah Sampson","A woman who disguised herself as a man to fight in the Continental Army"],["Haym Salomon","Jewish financier who helped raise money for the war"],["Phillis Wheatley","Enslaved poet in Boston whose poems were published in 1773"],["Sybil Ludington","Teen who rode at night to call militia in 1777, as the story goes"],["Francis Marion","South Carolina leader nicknamed the Swamp Fox"],["Benedict Arnold","American general who turned traitor and joined the British"],["John Paul Jones","Naval commander famous for 'I have not yet begun to fight'"],["Bernardo de Galvez","Spanish governor who helped the Americans by fighting the British in the Gulf region"],["Joseph Brant","Mohawk leader who sided with the British"],["Boycott","Refusing to buy goods as a protest; colonists used it against British goods"],["Taxation","Charging money to support a government"],["Parliament","Britain's lawmaking body"],["Repeal","To cancel a law; Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766"],["Quartering Act","British law requiring colonies to house soldiers"],["King George III","British king during the Revolution"],["Independence","Freedom from rule by another country"],["Committees of Correspondence","Groups that shared news and plans among the colonies"],["Olive Branch Petition (1775)","Congress's last request to King George to avoid war"],["Battle of Long Island (1776)","Major British win in New York at the start of the campaign for the city"],["Battle of Cowpens (1781)","American victory in South Carolina"],["Siege","Surrounding a place to force it to give up"],["Treaty","A written agreement between nations"],["Declaration signers","Fifty-six delegates signed the Declaration"],["July 4","Date the Declaration was adopted, now Independence Day"],["Liberty Bell","Famous bell in Philadelphia, a symbol of American freedom"],["Betsy Ross","Philadelphia seamstress tradition says sewed an early American flag"],["Continental dollar","Paper money printed by Congress that lost value quickly"],["Militia","Citizen soldiers who served part time"],["Guerrilla warfare","Fighting with small surprise attacks, used by some Patriot forces"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-civil-rights-movement","id":"us-civil-rights-movement","title":"The Civil Rights Movement","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"People, protests and laws in the struggle for equal rights, mostly from the 1940s to the 1960s.","tags":["civil rights","martin luther king","segregation","voting rights"],"frontLabel":"Person, event or term","backLabel":"What to know","cards":[["Segregation","Keeping people apart by race in schools, buses, restaurants and more"],["Jim Crow laws","Laws in the South that enforced segregation"],["Discrimination","Treating people unfairly because of who they are"],["Civil rights","Rights that guarantee equal treatment under the law"],["NAACP","National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909"],["Thurgood Marshall","NAACP lawyer who argued Brown v. Board and became the first Black Supreme Court justice"],["Jackie Robinson","In 1947 became the first Black player in modern major league baseball"],["Executive Order 9981 (1948)","Truman ordered the end of segregation in the armed forces"],["Brown v. Board of Education (1954)","Supreme Court ruled that segregated public schools are unequal"],["Earl Warren","Chief Justice when the Court decided Brown v. Board"],["Linda Brown","Kansas student at the center of the Brown v. Board case"],["Emmett Till","Black teenager killed in Mississippi in 1955; his mother's courage drew national attention"],["Rosa Parks","In December 1955 she refused to give up her bus seat in Montgomery, Alabama"],["Montgomery Bus Boycott","A year-long refusal to ride city buses in 1955-56"],["Martin Luther King Jr.","Baptist minister and leader of nonviolent protest"],["Nonviolence","Peaceful protest, a method King learned from Gandhi and the Gospel"],["Mahatma Gandhi","Indian leader whose peaceful methods inspired the movement"],["SCLC","Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a group led by King"],["Little Rock Nine (1957)","Nine Black students who integrated Central High School in Arkansas"],["Integration","Bringing people of different races together in schools and places"],["Ruby Bridges","At age six in 1960 she integrated an elementary school in New Orleans"],["Greensboro sit-ins (1960)","Four college students sat at a whites-only lunch counter in North Carolina"],["Sit-in","A protest where people sit in a place and refuse to leave"],["SNCC","Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, formed in 1960"],["Freedom Riders (1961)","Black and white activists rode buses together through the South to test desegregation"],["John Lewis","Student leader and Freedom Rider who later served in Congress"],["James Meredith","First Black student at the University of Mississippi, in 1962"],["Birmingham campaign (1963)","Protests in Alabama, including a march of many young people"],["Letter from Birmingham Jail","King's 1963 letter explaining why people should not wait for justice"],["March on Washington (1963)","Over 200,000 people gathered at the Lincoln Memorial for jobs and freedom"],["I Have a Dream","King's speech at the March on Washington, August 28, 1963"],["A. Philip Randolph","Labor leader and a main organizer of the March on Washington"],["Bayard Rustin","Main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington"],["16th Street Baptist Church bombing (1963)","Attack in Birmingham that killed four girls"],["Civil Rights Act of 1964","Outlawed segregation in public places and discrimination in jobs"],["Lyndon B. Johnson","President who signed the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts"],["Freedom Summer (1964)","Volunteers worked to register Black voters in Mississippi"],["Fannie Lou Hamer","Mississippi voting rights activist who spoke at the 1964 Democratic Convention"],["24th Amendment (1964)","Banned poll taxes in federal elections"],["Poll tax","A fee to vote that kept poor Black voters away from the polls"],["Literacy test","Reading tests unfairly used to keep Black citizens from voting"],["Selma to Montgomery marches (1965)","Marches for voting rights, including 'Bloody Sunday' on March 7"],["Edmund Pettus Bridge","Selma bridge where marchers were attacked on Bloody Sunday"],["Voting Rights Act (1965)","Protected the right to vote and banned practices that blocked Black voters"],["Malcolm X","Leader who spoke for Black pride and self-determination"],["Nation of Islam","Religious and social group Malcolm X belonged to before 1964"],["Black Power","Slogan from the 1960s about pride, strength and community control"],["Black Panther Party","Group founded in 1966 in Oakland, California"],["Loving v. Virginia (1967)","Supreme Court struck down laws against marriage between people of different races"],["Thurgood Marshall's appointment (1967)","Became the first Black justice on the Supreme Court"],["Assassination of MLK (1968)","King was killed in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968"],["Fair Housing Act (1968)","Banned discrimination in selling or renting homes"],["Poor People's Campaign","Movement for economic justice that King was planning at his death"],["Cesar Chavez","Labor leader who organized farm workers and led nonviolent boycotts"],["Dolores Huerta","Co-founded the United Farm Workers with Chavez"],["United Farm Workers","Union of farm workers organized in the 1960s"],["American Indian Movement (1968)","Native activists working for treaty rights and justice"],["Women's liberation movement","Push for equal pay and rights for women in the 1960s and 70s"],["Betty Friedan","Author of The Feminine Mystique (1963)"],["Title IX (1972)","Law banning sex discrimination in schools that get federal money, including sports"],["Equal Pay Act (1963)","Law requiring equal pay for equal work regardless of sex"],["Stonewall (1969)","New York protest often seen as a spark of the gay rights movement"],["Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)","Banned discrimination against people with disabilities"],["Ed Roberts","Disability rights pioneer who helped start the independent living movement"],["Japanese American redress (1988)","Law that apologized for the WWII incarceration and paid survivors"],["Civil disobedience","Peacefully refusing to obey an unjust law"],["Boycott","Refusing to buy or use something as a protest"],["Desegregation","Ending separation of races"],["Separate but equal","Rule from Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), overturned for schools by Brown"],["Plessy v. Ferguson","1896 case that allowed segregation"],["Medgar Evers","Mississippi NAACP leader killed in 1963"],["Ella Baker","Organizer who helped start SNCC"],["Claudette Colvin","Teen who refused to give up a bus seat in Montgomery in March 1955"],["Constance Baker Motley","Lawyer who argued important civil rights cases and became a federal judge"],["Barbara Johns","Teen who led a student walkout for better schools in Virginia in 1951"],["Septima Clark","Teacher who started citizenship schools to prepare people to register to vote"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-civil-war","id":"us-civil-war","title":"The Civil War (1861-1865)","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Causes, battles, leaders and turning points of the American Civil War.","tags":["civil war","lincoln","slavery","union","confederacy"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"What it was","cards":[["Main cause of the Civil War","Disagreement over slavery and whether it could spread into new states and territories"],["Union","The Northern states that stayed in the United States"],["Confederacy","The eleven Southern states that left the Union"],["Secession","A state's decision to leave the Union"],["First state to secede","South Carolina, in December 1860"],["Abraham Lincoln","16th president; his election in 1860 led Southern states to secede"],["Jefferson Davis","President of the Confederacy"],["Fort Sumter (1861)","Confederate guns fired on this South Carolina fort, starting the war on April 12"],["Border states","Slave states that stayed in the Union: Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri"],["Robert E. Lee","Commanding general of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia"],["Ulysses S. Grant","Union general who led all Union armies and later became president"],["William T. Sherman","Union general who led the March to the Sea through Georgia in 1864"],["Stonewall Jackson","Confederate general famous for standing like a stone wall at Bull Run"],["George McClellan","Union general who trained the Army of the Potomac but moved cautiously"],["Anaconda Plan","Union plan to squeeze the South by blockading ports and taking the Mississippi River"],["Blockade","Using ships to keep supplies from reaching or leaving ports"],["First Battle of Bull Run (1861)","First big battle, in Virginia; showed the war would be long"],["Ironclad","Warship covered in iron plates"],["Monitor and Merrimack (1862)","First battle between ironclad ships; neither side won clearly"],["Battle of Shiloh (1862)","Bloody Tennessee battle that showed how costly the war would be"],["Battle of Antietam (1862)","Fought in Maryland on September 17; the bloodiest single day in American history"],["Emancipation Proclamation","Lincoln's order, effective January 1, 1863, freeing enslaved people in areas in rebellion"],["54th Massachusetts","Famous regiment of Black soldiers led by white officers; attacked Fort Wagner in 1863"],["Black soldiers","About 180,000 Black men served in the Union Army"],["Robert Gould Shaw","White colonel who led the 54th Massachusetts"],["Harriet Tubman in the war","Served the Union as a scout, nurse and spy"],["Battle of Fredericksburg (1862)","Confederate victory in Virginia with heavy Union losses"],["Battle of Chancellorsville (1863)","Lee's bold victory in Virginia, though Jackson was fatally wounded"],["Siege of Vicksburg (1863)","Grant captured this Mississippi River city after weeks of siege"],["Battle of Gettysburg (1863)","Three-day battle in Pennsylvania; Lee's northern invasion was turned back"],["Pickett's Charge","Failed Confederate assault on the last day at Gettysburg"],["Turning points of 1863","Gettysburg and Vicksburg, both ending July 3-4"],["Gettysburg Address","Lincoln's short speech in November 1863 about equality and a 'new birth of freedom'"],["Draft riots (1863)","Violent protests in New York City against the military draft"],["Habeas corpus","Right to challenge your imprisonment; Lincoln suspended it during the war"],["Clara Barton","Nurse who helped wounded soldiers and later founded the American Red Cross"],["Dorothea Dix in the war","Led the Union Army's nurses"],["Women in the war","Served as nurses and spies, ran farms and businesses, and a few disguised themselves to fight"],["Soldier's diet","Hardtack, a hard cracker, was a common food"],["Hardtack","A hard, dry biscuit given to soldiers"],["Minie ball","A cone-shaped rifle bullet that made battles deadlier"],["Disease in the war","More soldiers died of illness than of wounds"],["Mathew Brady","Photographer whose team showed the war's reality to the public"],["Telegraph in the war","Let Lincoln and generals send orders quickly"],["Railroads in the war","Moved troops and supplies quickly, especially for the Union"],["Sherman's March to the Sea (1864)","Union army cut through Georgia, destroying railroads and supplies"],["Atlanta captured (1864)","Sherman took Atlanta in September 1864, helping Lincoln win re-election"],["Election of 1864","Lincoln won a second term"],["Thirteenth Amendment","Ended slavery in the US; passed by Congress in 1865 and ratified that December"],["Siege of Petersburg","Months-long Union siege in Virginia in 1864-65"],["Appomattox Court House","Virginia town where Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865"],["Lee's surrender","April 9, 1865, effectively ended the war in the East"],["Lincoln's assassination","John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln on April 14, 1865; he died the next day"],["Andrew Johnson","Became president after Lincoln's death"],["Casualties","About 620,000 soldiers died in the war"],["Dred Scott decision (1857)","Supreme Court ruled Black people could not be citizens and Congress could not ban slavery in territories"],["Missouri Compromise","1820 plan that tried to balance slave and free states"],["Compromise of 1850","Package of laws including California as a free state and a stronger Fugitive Slave Act"],["Fugitive Slave Act","Law requiring that escaped enslaved people be returned"],["Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)","Let settlers vote on slavery in those territories, leading to 'Bleeding Kansas'"],["Bleeding Kansas","Violent fighting in Kansas over slavery in the 1850s"],["John Brown's raid (1859)","Abolitionist John Brown attacked the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia"],["Uncle Tom's Cabin","1852 novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that turned many against slavery"],["Harriet Beecher Stowe","Author of Uncle Tom's Cabin"],["Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858)","Illinois Senate debates that made Lincoln famous"],["Stephen Douglas","Illinois senator who debated Lincoln over slavery"],["Republican Party","Founded in 1854 to oppose spreading slavery into territories"],["Sectionalism","Loyalty to a region more than to the whole country"],["States' rights","Idea that states hold powers the federal government should not control"],["Cotton in the South","The Southern economy depended heavily on cotton grown by enslaved labor"],["North's economy","Based more on factories, trade and smaller farms"],["Frederick Douglass in the war","Urged Lincoln to free enslaved people and let Black men fight"],["Contrabands","Name for enslaved people who fled to Union lines"],["Homestead Act and Morrill Act (1862)","Laws passed during the war that gave land to settlers and colleges"],["Greenbacks","Paper money the Union printed to pay for the war"],["Gettysburg National Cemetery","Burial place for Union dead, where Lincoln spoke"],["Battle of Mobile Bay (1864)","Union naval victory under Admiral David Farragut that closed a key Confederate port"],["Clara Barton's Red Cross","Founded in 1881 after her war work"],["Juneteenth","June 19, 1865, when enslaved people in Texas learned they were free; now a national holiday"],["Civil War","War within one country between two sides"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-cold-war","id":"us-cold-war","title":"The Cold War","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"The long rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union from 1945 to 1991.","tags":["cold war","soviet union","space race","berlin wall"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Cold War","Decades-long rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union that stopped short of direct war"],["Superpowers","The US and the Soviet Union, the two strongest nations after WWII"],["Capitalism","Economic system with private businesses and free markets"],["Communism","System where the government controls the economy and there is one party"],["Iron Curtain","Churchill's phrase for the line dividing communist Eastern Europe from the West"],["Containment","US policy of stopping communism from spreading"],["Truman Doctrine (1947)","Promised US aid to nations resisting communist takeover"],["Marshall Plan","US money that helped rebuild Western Europe after WWII"],["Berlin Airlift (1948-49)","Allies flew food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviets blocked roads"],["NATO (1949)","Western alliance in which members agree to defend one another"],["Warsaw Pact (1955)","Soviet-led military alliance in Eastern Europe"],["Soviet atomic bomb (1949)","The USSR tested its first nuclear weapon"],["Arms race","Competition to build more and better weapons"],["Nuclear weapons","Bombs of great destructive power, built by both sides"],["Deterrence","Preventing attack by showing that you could strike back"],["Mutually assured destruction","Idea that a nuclear war would destroy both sides, so neither would start one"],["Korean War (1950-53)","War in which the US and UN forces helped South Korea against North Korea and China"],["38th parallel","Line that divided North and South Korea"],["Armistice (1953)","Ceasefire that ended the Korean War's fighting without a peace treaty"],["McCarthyism","1950s practice of accusing people of being communists with little proof"],["Joseph McCarthy","Wisconsin senator who made many unproven accusations"],["Red Scare","Widespread fear of communists in America"],["Duck and cover","School drills that taught children how to protect themselves from an atomic blast"],["Fallout shelter","Underground room built to protect people from radioactive dust"],["Sputnik (1957)","First artificial satellite, launched by the Soviet Union"],["Space Race","Competition between the US and USSR to lead in space"],["NASA","US space agency, founded in 1958"],["National Defense Education Act","1958 law that increased money for science and math education"],["Yuri Gagarin","Soviet cosmonaut, first human in space in 1961"],["Alan Shepard","First American in space, 1961"],["John Glenn","First American to orbit Earth, 1962"],["Moon landing (1969)","Apollo 11: Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the Moon on July 20"],["Neil Armstrong","First person to step on the Moon"],["Eisenhower","President from 1953 to 1961 during the early Cold War"],["Interstate Highway System","Highway network started in 1956, partly for defense"],["U-2 incident (1960)","A US spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union"],["Fidel Castro","Led a revolution in Cuba in 1959 and ruled it as a communist leader"],["Bay of Pigs (1961)","Failed US-backed attempt to invade Cuba"],["Berlin Wall (1961)","Wall built by East Germany dividing East and West Berlin"],["Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)","Tense 13 days when the US found Soviet missiles in Cuba"],["John F. Kennedy","President during the Cuban Missile Crisis"],["Nikita Khrushchev","Soviet leader during the Cuban Missile Crisis"],["Hotline","Direct phone line set up between Washington and Moscow in 1963"],["Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963)","Banned nuclear tests in the air, in space and underwater"],["Vietnam War","Conflict in Vietnam from the 1950s to 1975 in which the US supported South Vietnam"],["Domino theory","Belief that if one country fell to communism its neighbors would too"],["Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)","Gave President Johnson wide power to use force in Vietnam"],["Tet Offensive (1968)","Big surprise attacks in Vietnam that shook American support for the war"],["Antiwar movement","Protests against US involvement in Vietnam"],["Vietnam Veterans Memorial","Wall in Washington, DC listing names of the Americans who died in the war"],["Fall of Saigon (1975)","South Vietnam's capital fell to North Vietnam, ending the war"],["Détente","Easing of tensions between the US and USSR in the 1970s"],["Richard Nixon","President who visited China in 1972 and Moscow the same year"],["SALT I (1972)","First treaty limiting some nuclear weapons"],["Apollo-Soyuz (1975)","US and Soviet spacecraft docked in orbit"],["Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979)","Soviet troops entered Afghanistan, ending détente"],["1980 Olympic boycott","The US and others stayed away from the Moscow Summer Games"],["Ronald Reagan","President in the 1980s who built up defense and later negotiated with the USSR"],["Strategic Defense Initiative","Reagan's plan for missile defense, nicknamed Star Wars"],["Mikhail Gorbachev","Last Soviet leader; introduced glasnost and perestroika"],["Glasnost","Gorbachev's policy of openness"],["Perestroika","Gorbachev's policy of restructuring the Soviet economy"],["INF Treaty (1987)","US-Soviet treaty eliminating a class of nuclear missiles"],["Reagan's Berlin speech (1987)","Reagan urged Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall"],["Solidarity","Polish workers' movement that helped end communism in Poland"],["Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)","On November 9, crowds opened the wall between East and West Berlin"],["German reunification (1990)","East and West Germany joined as one nation"],["Collapse of the USSR (1991)","The Soviet Union ended and split into 15 independent countries"],["Proxy war","A war where powers back opposing sides in another country"],["Espionage","Spying"],["Sino-Soviet split","Rift between China and the Soviet Union in the 1960s"],["Marshall, Truman and Kennan","Key figures in early containment; George Kennan wrote the 'Long Telegram'"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-colonial-america","id":"us-colonial-america","title":"Colonial America: Dates and Events","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"Key dates, places and events from the first English settlements to the eve of the American Revolution.","tags":["colonial","jamestown","pilgrims","13 colonies"],"frontLabel":"Date or event","backLabel":"What happened","cards":[["1607","Jamestown, Virginia, became the first lasting English settlement in North America"],["1619","The first enslaved Africans were brought to English Virginia; the House of Burgesses also first met"],["1620","The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the Mayflower"],["Mayflower Compact","A 1620 agreement by the Pilgrims to make fair laws and obey them"],["1621","The Pilgrims and Wampanoag shared a harvest feast, often called the first Thanksgiving"],["1630","Puritans led by John Winthrop founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony"],["1636","Roger Williams founded Rhode Island; Harvard College was also founded"],["1624","The Dutch began settling New Netherland, which later became New York"],["1664","England took New Amsterdam from the Dutch and renamed it New York"],["1682","William Penn founded Pennsylvania with Philadelphia as its city"],["1732","Georgia, the last of the 13 colonies, was founded by James Oglethorpe"],["1692","The Salem witch trials took place in Massachusetts"],["1754","The French and Indian War began in North America"],["1763","The Treaty of Paris ended the French and Indian War; Britain won Canada"],["Proclamation of 1763","British order that kept colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains"],["Thirteen colonies","The British colonies on the Atlantic coast that became the first US states"],["New England Colonies","Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Connecticut"],["Middle Colonies","New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware"],["Southern Colonies","Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia"],["Jamestown's early leader","Captain John Smith, who insisted that settlers who did not work would not eat"],["Pocahontas","A Powhatan girl connected to Jamestown who later married colonist John Rolfe"],["John Rolfe","Jamestown settler whose tobacco crop made Virginia profitable"],["Cash crop","A crop grown mainly to be sold, like tobacco in Virginia"],["Squanto","A Patuxet man who taught the Pilgrims to grow corn and fish"],["William Bradford","Governor of Plymouth Colony for many years"],["Anne Hutchinson","A Puritan woman banished from Massachusetts for her religious ideas"],["Roger Williams","Believed in separating church and government and in fair treatment of Native Americans"],["Lord Baltimore","Founder of Maryland, planned as a home for English Catholics"],["William Penn","A Quaker who made Pennsylvania a place of religious freedom"],["Quakers","A Christian group that valued peace and equality"],["Puritans","English Protestants who wanted to make the church simpler and purer"],["Pilgrims","Separatists who left England to worship in their own way"],["Separatists","People who wanted to break away from the Church of England"],["Indentured servant","A person who worked for a set number of years to pay for the trip to America"],["Headright system","Virginia plan that gave land to anyone who paid for a settler's trip"],["House of Burgesses","The first elected lawmaking group in the English colonies, started in Virginia in 1619"],["Town meeting","A New England gathering where townspeople voted on local matters"],["Triangular trade","Trade routes linking New England, Africa and the West Indies"],["Middle Passage","The forced sea voyage that carried enslaved Africans across the Atlantic"],["Plantation","A large farm in the South that grew crops like tobacco, rice and indigo"],["Slavery in the colonies","Forced labor of enslaved Africans, legal in all thirteen colonies at the time"],["Great Awakening","A religious revival in the 1730s and 1740s that spread through the colonies"],["Jonathan Edwards","Preacher and leader of the Great Awakening"],["Benjamin Franklin","Printer and inventor in Philadelphia; proposed the Albany Plan of Union in 1754"],["Albany Plan","Franklin's 1754 idea to unite the colonies for defense"],["Join, or Die","Franklin's cartoon of a snake cut in pieces, urging the colonies to unite"],["George Washington","A young Virginian who fought in the French and Indian War"],["Fort Necessity","Small fort in Pennsylvania where Washington fought the French in 1754"],["Mercantilism","The idea that colonies exist to make the mother country rich"],["Navigation Acts","British laws that made colonists trade mainly with Britain"],["Salutary neglect","Britain's loose enforcement of colonial laws before 1763"],["Charter","A written document from the king giving a colony the right to exist"],["Proprietary colony","A colony owned by one person or a family, like Pennsylvania"],["Royal colony","A colony ruled directly by the king through a governor"],["Virginia","The first of the thirteen colonies, founded at Jamestown"],["Plymouth Colony","The Pilgrims' settlement in Massachusetts, begun in 1620"],["Boston","Main city of Massachusetts Bay and a busy colonial port"],["Philadelphia","Largest colonial city by the 1770s; its name means brotherly love"],["Charleston","Main port of South Carolina"],["Williamsburg","Capital of colonial Virginia from 1699"],["Pennsylvania Dutch","German-speaking settlers in Pennsylvania"],["Hornbook","A paddle-shaped board that held a lesson sheet for young colonial students"],["New England Primer","A popular colonial reading book for children"],["Apprentice","A young person who learned a trade by working for a master"],["Blacksmith","Colonial worker who made tools and nails from iron"],["Cooper","Colonial craftsperson who made barrels"],["Wampanoag","Native nation in what is now Massachusetts who met the Pilgrims"],["Powhatan Confederacy","Alliance of Native nations in tidewater Virginia"],["King Philip's War","1675-1676 conflict between New England colonists and Native nations led by Metacom"],["Metacom","Wampanoag leader, called King Philip by the English"],["Fur trade","Trade in animal pelts, important to the French and Dutch in North America"],["New France","French territory in North America, centered on Quebec"],["Quebec","City founded by the French in 1608"],["Samuel de Champlain","French explorer who founded Quebec"],["Henry Hudson","English explorer working for the Dutch who sailed into the Hudson River in 1609"],["Peter Stuyvesant","Last Dutch governor of New Amsterdam"],["St. Augustine","Spanish settlement in Florida, founded in 1565, the oldest European-founded city in the US"],["Lost Colony of Roanoke","English settlement in 1587 whose people had vanished by 1590"],["Virginia Dare","First English child born in the Americas, at Roanoke in 1587"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-early-republic","id":"us-early-republic","title":"The Early Republic (1783-1840)","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"Building a new nation: the Constitution, first presidents, the Louisiana Purchase, the War of 1812 and the age of Jackson.","tags":["early republic","constitution","war of 1812","jackson"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Articles of Confederation","First national plan of government (1781); it gave Congress little power"],["Shays' Rebellion (1786-87)","Farmers in Massachusetts protested debts and taxes, showing the need for a stronger government"],["Northwest Ordinance (1787)","Law for organizing new states north of the Ohio River and banning slavery there"],["Constitutional Convention (1787)","Philadelphia meeting that wrote the US Constitution"],["James Madison","Called the Father of the Constitution; fourth president"],["Great Compromise","Deal creating a Senate with equal votes and a House based on population"],["Three-Fifths Compromise","Counted three-fifths of enslaved people toward a state's population for representation"],["Federalists","Supporters of the new Constitution and a strong national government"],["Anti-Federalists","Opponents of the Constitution who feared a too-powerful government"],["Federalist Papers","Essays by Hamilton, Madison and Jay urging states to ratify the Constitution"],["Bill of Rights","First ten amendments, added in 1791"],["Ratification","Formal approval; nine states had to approve the Constitution"],["George Washington","First president, serving 1789 to 1797"],["Cabinet","Group of top advisers to the president"],["Alexander Hamilton","First Secretary of the Treasury; wanted a national bank and a strong economy"],["Thomas Jefferson","First Secretary of State and third president"],["National bank","Hamilton's plan for a bank to hold government money and print a stable currency"],["Whiskey Rebellion (1794)","Western Pennsylvania farmers protested a tax on whiskey; Washington sent troops"],["Washington's Farewell Address","Warned against political parties and entangling alliances with other nations"],["Judiciary Act of 1789","Created the federal court system"],["Political parties","Federalists (Hamilton) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) formed in the 1790s"],["John Adams","Second president, 1797 to 1801"],["XYZ Affair (1797)","French agents demanded bribes from American diplomats, angering the public"],["Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)","Laws that limited immigrants' rights and criticism of the government"],["Election of 1800","Jefferson defeated Adams in a vote that moved power peacefully between parties"],["Marbury v. Madison (1803)","Supreme Court case that set up judicial review"],["Judicial review","The courts' power to decide that a law goes against the Constitution"],["John Marshall","Chief Justice who made the Supreme Court a strong branch"],["Louisiana Purchase (1803)","Jefferson bought land from France that doubled the size of the US"],["Lewis and Clark Expedition","1804-1806 trip to explore the Louisiana Purchase and reach the Pacific"],["Sacagawea","Shoshone woman who guided and helped the Lewis and Clark expedition"],["Corps of Discovery","Name for the Lewis and Clark exploring group"],["Zebulon Pike","Army explorer who led an expedition in the Southwest and Rockies"],["Embargo Act (1807)","Jefferson's ban on American trade with other countries"],["Impressment","British practice of taking sailors off American ships to serve in its navy"],["War Hawks","Young Congress members who pushed for war with Britain in 1812"],["War of 1812","War between the US and Britain, 1812 to 1815"],["Tecumseh","Shawnee leader who built a Native alliance to resist settlers' expansion"],["Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)","William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh's followers in Indiana"],["USS Constitution","Warship nicknamed Old Ironsides for its strong hull"],["Burning of Washington (1814)","British troops set fire to the Capitol and White House"],["Francis Scott Key","Wrote the words of The Star-Spangled Banner while watching Fort McHenry in 1814"],["Fort McHenry","Baltimore fort that withstood British bombardment in 1814"],["Dolley Madison","First lady who saved a portrait of Washington when the White House burned"],["Treaty of Ghent (1814)","Treaty that ended the War of 1812"],["Battle of New Orleans (1815)","Andrew Jackson's victory, fought after the treaty was signed"],["Era of Good Feelings","Period around 1817-1825 of national pride and one dominant party"],["James Monroe","Fifth president, 1817 to 1825"],["Monroe Doctrine (1823)","Warned European powers not to colonize the Americas"],["Missouri Compromise (1820)","Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state; set a line for slavery's spread"],["Erie Canal (1825)","Canal linking the Hudson River to Lake Erie, speeding trade"],["Eli Whitney","Invented the cotton gin in 1793"],["Cotton gin","Machine that quickly cleaned cotton seeds, which increased demand for enslaved labor"],["Industrial Revolution begins","Early American factories, like Slater's mill in 1790, began making cloth"],["Lowell mills","Massachusetts textile factories that employed young women"],["Steamboat","Robert Fulton's Clermont made steam travel practical in 1807"],["Market revolution","Growth of roads, canals and factories that tied farms to markets"],["Andrew Jackson","Seventh president, 1829 to 1837; champion of the 'common man'"],["Jacksonian democracy","Expansion of voting rights to most white men, regardless of wealth"],["Spoils system","Giving government jobs to loyal supporters"],["Indian Removal Act (1830)","Law that led to forcing Native nations from southeastern lands"],["Trail of Tears","Forced march of the Cherokee and other nations to Indian Territory in the 1830s"],["Worcester v. Georgia (1832)","Supreme Court said states could not rule Cherokee land; Jackson did not enforce it"],["Nullification Crisis","South Carolina tried to cancel a federal tariff in 1832"],["John C. Calhoun","South Carolinian who defended states' power to nullify federal laws"],["Second Great Awakening","Religious revival of the early 1800s that inspired reform movements"],["Abolitionist","A person who wanted to end slavery"],["Frederick Douglass","Escaped from slavery and became a famed writer, speaker and abolitionist"],["William Lloyd Garrison","Boston editor who published The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper"],["Seneca Falls Convention (1848)","First women's rights convention, in New York"],["Underground Railroad","Secret network of people helping enslaved people reach freedom"],["Harriet Tubman","Escaped slavery and guided many others to freedom on the Underground Railroad"],["Nat Turner's Rebellion (1831)","Virginia uprising by enslaved people led by Nat Turner"],["Horace Mann","Reformer who promoted free public schools"],["Dorothea Dix","Reformer who worked to improve care for people with mental illness"],["Sequoyah","Created the Cherokee writing system in the 1820s"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-history-key-dates","id":"us-history-key-dates","title":"US History: Key Dates","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"The year (or date) when the big events in American history happened.","tags":["dates","timeline","us history"],"frontLabel":"Event","backLabel":"Year","cards":[["Columbus reaches the Americas","1492"],["Jamestown founded","1607"],["Pilgrims land at Plymouth","1620"],["First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia","1619"],["Salem witch trials","1692"],["French and Indian War begins","1754"],["Stamp Act","1765"],["Boston Massacre","1770"],["Boston Tea Party","1773"],["Battles of Lexington and Concord","1775"],["Declaration of Independence adopted","July 4, 1776"],["Battle of Saratoga","1777"],["Winter at Valley Forge","1777-1778"],["British surrender at Yorktown","1781"],["Treaty of Paris ends the Revolution","1783"],["Constitutional Convention","1787"],["George Washington becomes president","1789"],["Bill of Rights ratified","1791"],["Louisiana Purchase","1803"],["Lewis and Clark expedition","1804-1806"],["War of 1812 begins","1812"],["Star-Spangled Banner written","1814"],["Missouri Compromise","1820"],["Monroe Doctrine","1823"],["Erie Canal opens","1825"],["Indian Removal Act","1830"],["Battle of the Alamo","1836"],["Seneca Falls Convention","1848"],["California Gold Rush begins","1848"],["Mexican-American War ends","1848"],["Compromise of 1850","1850"],["Dred Scott decision","1857"],["Lincoln elected president","1860"],["Fort Sumter attacked","1861"],["Emancipation Proclamation","1863"],["Battle of Gettysburg","1863"],["Lee surrenders at Appomattox","1865"],["Lincoln assassinated","1865"],["13th Amendment ratified","1865"],["Alaska purchased from Russia","1867"],["Transcontinental railroad completed","1869"],["Telephone patented","1876"],["Battle of Little Bighorn","1876"],["Light bulb perfected by Edison","1879"],["Statue of Liberty dedicated","1886"],["Ellis Island opens","1892"],["Plessy v. Ferguson","1896"],["Spanish-American War","1898"],["Wright brothers' first flight","1903"],["World War I begins in Europe","1914"],["US enters World War I","1917"],["19th Amendment (women's suffrage)","1920"],["Stock market crash","1929"],["Franklin Roosevelt elected; New Deal begins","1932-1933"],["Social Security Act","1935"],["Pearl Harbor attacked","December 7, 1941"],["D-Day","June 6, 1944"],["World War II ends","1945"],["Marshall Plan","1948"],["Korean War begins","1950"],["Brown v. Board of Education","1954"],["Montgomery Bus Boycott","1955-1956"],["Sputnik launched","1957"],["Cuban Missile Crisis","1962"],["March on Washington","1963"],["JFK assassinated","1963"],["Civil Rights Act","1964"],["Voting Rights Act","1965"],["Martin Luther King Jr. assassinated","1968"],["First Moon landing","1969"],["Nixon resigns","1974"],["Fall of Saigon","1975"],["Berlin Wall falls","1989"],["Soviet Union dissolves","1991"],["September 11 attacks","2001"],["Barack Obama elected","2008"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-history-vocabulary","id":"us-history-vocabulary","title":"US History Vocabulary","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Words you need to read and discuss American history.","tags":["vocabulary","us history"],"frontLabel":"Word","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Colony","A territory ruled by another country"],["Settler","A person who moves to and lives in a new place"],["Immigrant","A person who moves to a new country to live"],["Emigrant","A person who leaves one country to live in another"],["Pioneer","One of the first people to settle in a new area"],["Frontier","The edge of settled land"],["Territory","Land owned by a country but not yet a state"],["Statehood","Becoming one of the states"],["Expansion","Growth in size or reach"],["Annex","To add a territory to a country"],["Treaty","A formal agreement between nations"],["Alliance","A partnership among nations or groups"],["Neutral","Not taking a side in a conflict"],["Revolution","A sudden, major change, often in government"],["Rebellion","An open fight against authority"],["Independence","Freedom from outside control"],["Patriot","A person who loves and supports their country"],["Loyalist","A colonist who supported Britain"],["Tax","Money people pay to support the government"],["Tariff","A tax on goods from other countries"],["Boycott","Refusing to buy or use something as a protest"],["Embargo","A government ban on trade with a country"],["Constitution","The written plan for a country's government and laws"],["Amendment","A change or addition to the Constitution"],["Ratify","To formally approve"],["Federal","Having to do with the national government"],["Federalism","Power shared between national and state governments"],["Republic","A government where people elect representatives"],["Democracy","Government by the people, through voting"],["Monarchy","Government led by a king or queen"],["Dictator","A ruler with total power"],["Compromise","Each side gives up something to reach an agreement"],["Abolish","To officially end something"],["Abolitionist","Someone who worked to end slavery"],["Slavery","The forced ownership and unpaid labor of people"],["Emancipation","Freeing people from slavery"],["Secede","To formally withdraw from a group or country"],["Union","The states that stayed with the US during the Civil War; also the nation"],["Confederate","Belonging to the Confederacy"],["Civil war","A war between groups within the same country"],["Reconstruction","The rebuilding of the South after the Civil War"],["Sharecropper","A farmer who pays rent with part of the crop"],["Segregation","Forced separation of people by race"],["Discrimination","Unfair treatment based on identity"],["Suffrage","The right to vote"],["Suffragist","A person who worked for voting rights, especially for women"],["Industry","Business that makes goods, often in factories"],["Factory","A building where goods are made with machines"],["Urban","Having to do with cities"],["Rural","Having to do with the countryside"],["Monopoly","Complete control of a product or service by one business"],["Union (labor)","A group of workers organized to protect their interests"],["Strike","Workers stop working to demand change"],["Reform","To improve something by changing it"],["Progressive","Favoring reform, as in the Progressive Era"],["Depression","A long period of very weak economy and high unemployment"],["Inflation","A general rise in prices"],["Recession","A shorter, milder slump in the economy"],["Ration","To limit how much people can have of something scarce"],["Draft","A system that requires people to serve in the military"],["Propaganda","Information used to push a view, often one-sided"],["Cold War","Rivalry between the US and USSR without direct fighting between them"],["Communism","System where the state controls the economy and property"],["Containment","Policy to stop the spread of communism"],["Primary source","Evidence from the time, like a letter, photo or diary"],["Secondary source","A later account written about the past, like a textbook"],["Timeline","A line of events shown in order"],["Era","A long period of history with a common theme"],["Century","One hundred years"],["Decade","Ten years"],["Chronological order","Arranged in the order events happened"],["Cause","Why something happened"],["Effect","What happened because of an event"],["Legacy","What is left behind for the future"],["Heritage","Traditions and history passed down"],["Landmark","A place or event of historic importance"],["Memorial","Something built to remember a person or event"],["Artifact","An object made by people long ago"],["Historian","A person who studies the past"],["Archaeologist","A scientist who studies the past by digging up objects"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-presidents-facts","id":"us-presidents-facts","title":"US Presidents: Facts and Firsts","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"What each president is known for, plus presidential firsts and facts.","tags":["presidents","firsts"],"frontLabel":"Clue","backLabel":"Answer","cards":[["Led the Continental Army and was the first president","George Washington"],["Second president; his son also became president","John Adams"],["Wrote the Declaration of Independence; made the Louisiana Purchase","Thomas Jefferson"],["Called the Father of the Constitution","James Madison"],["Warned European nations away from the Americas in 1823","James Monroe"],["Son of the second president, he was the sixth","John Quincy Adams"],["Hero of the Battle of New Orleans; started the 'common man' era","Andrew Jackson"],["Served only one month in 1841 and died","William Henry Harrison"],["President during the Mexican-American War and the Oregon Treaty","James K. Polk"],["Led the nation during the Civil War and signed the Emancipation Proclamation","Abraham Lincoln"],["First president to be impeached by the House","Andrew Johnson"],["Civil War general who became the 18th president","Ulysses S. Grant"],["Shot in 1881 and died months later","James A. Garfield"],["Only president to serve two separate terms","Grover Cleveland"],["President when the Spanish-American War happened","William McKinley"],["Youngest person to become president, at age 42","Theodore Roosevelt"],["Teddy bear was named after him","Theodore Roosevelt"],["Only person to be both president and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court","William Howard Taft"],["Led the US in World War I and proposed the League of Nations","Woodrow Wilson"],["President at the start of the Great Depression","Herbert Hoover"],["Only president elected four times","Franklin D. Roosevelt"],["Led the nation through the Depression and most of World War II","Franklin D. Roosevelt"],["Ordered the atomic bombs used to end World War II","Harry S. Truman"],["Supreme Allied commander in WWII who became president","Dwight D. Eisenhower"],["Started the Interstate Highway System","Dwight D. Eisenhower"],["Youngest person elected president, at age 43","John F. Kennedy"],["First Catholic president","John F. Kennedy"],["President during the Cuban Missile Crisis","John F. Kennedy"],["Signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964","Lyndon B. Johnson"],["President when Americans first walked on the Moon","Richard Nixon"],["Only president to resign from office","Richard Nixon"],["Became president after Nixon resigned, without being elected president or vice president","Gerald Ford"],["Peanut farmer from Georgia who became the 39th president","Jimmy Carter"],["Former actor and California governor who became president in 1981","Ronald Reagan"],["President when the Berlin Wall fell","George H. W. Bush"],["President in the 1990s who was the 42nd","Bill Clinton"],["Son of the 41st president, he became the 43rd","George W. Bush"],["First Black president","Barack Obama"],["Presidents' term length","Four years"],["Maximum terms for a president","Two elected terms, set by the 22nd Amendment (1951)"],["Minimum age to be president","35 years old"],["Who becomes president if the president cannot serve?","The vice president"],["The White House","Home of the president at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC"],["First president to live in the White House","John Adams"],["Camp David","The president's country retreat in Maryland"],["Air Force One","The airplane that carries the president"],["Oval Office","The president's formal office in the White House"],["Electoral College","The system of electors who formally choose the president"],["Inauguration","Ceremony where a president takes the oath of office"],["Inauguration Day","January 20 (since 1937)"],["Veto","The president's power to reject a bill passed by Congress"],["Executive order","A directive issued by the president that has the force of law"],["Commander in chief","The president's role as head of the armed forces"],["Cabinet","Leaders of major government departments who advise the president"],["First lady","Title for the president's wife (so far); some have been active leaders"],["Eleanor Roosevelt","First lady who held press conferences and wrote a newspaper column"],["Dolley Madison","First lady known for hosting events and saving a portrait during the War of 1812"],["Abigail Adams","First lady and trusted adviser to John Adams"],["First president born a US citizen rather than a British subject","Martin Van Buren"],["Taller than most, 6 feet 4 inches","Abraham Lincoln"],["Protected millions of acres as national forests, parks and monuments","Theodore Roosevelt"],["Mount Rushmore presidents","Washington, Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Lincoln"],["President on the penny","Abraham Lincoln"],["President on the nickel","Thomas Jefferson"],["President on the dollar bill","George Washington"],["President on the five-dollar bill","Abraham Lincoln"],["President on the 50-dollar bill","Ulysses S. Grant"],["President on the quarter","George Washington"],["President on the dime","Franklin D. Roosevelt"],["Born on the Fourth of July","Calvin Coolidge"],["Died on July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the Declaration","Thomas Jefferson and John Adams"],["Had a pet raccoon named Rebecca","Calvin Coolidge"],["Won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1906","Theodore Roosevelt"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-presidents-in-order","id":"us-presidents-in-order","title":"US Presidents in Order","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Match each number with the president who held that office, from Washington through Biden.","tags":["presidents","order"],"frontLabel":"Number","backLabel":"President","cards":[["1st president","George Washington","1789-1797"],["2nd president","John Adams","1797-1801"],["3rd president","Thomas Jefferson","1801-1809"],["4th president","James Madison","1809-1817"],["5th president","James Monroe","1817-1825"],["6th president","John Quincy Adams","1825-1829"],["7th president","Andrew Jackson","1829-1837"],["8th president","Martin Van Buren","1837-1841"],["9th president","William Henry Harrison","1841; died after one month"],["10th president","John Tyler","1841-1845"],["11th president","James K. Polk","1845-1849"],["12th president","Zachary Taylor","1849-1850"],["13th president","Millard Fillmore","1850-1853"],["14th president","Franklin Pierce","1853-1857"],["15th president","James Buchanan","1857-1861"],["16th president","Abraham Lincoln","1861-1865"],["17th president","Andrew Johnson","1865-1869"],["18th president","Ulysses S. Grant","1869-1877"],["19th president","Rutherford B. Hayes","1877-1881"],["20th president","James A. Garfield","1881"],["21st president","Chester A. Arthur","1881-1885"],["22nd president","Grover Cleveland","1885-1889; first of two separate terms"],["23rd president","Benjamin Harrison","1889-1893"],["24th president","Grover Cleveland","1893-1897; the same man as the 22nd"],["25th president","William McKinley","1897-1901"],["26th president","Theodore Roosevelt","1901-1909"],["27th president","William Howard Taft","1909-1913"],["28th president","Woodrow Wilson","1913-1921"],["29th president","Warren G. Harding","1921-1923"],["30th president","Calvin Coolidge","1923-1929"],["31st president","Herbert Hoover","1929-1933"],["32nd president","Franklin D. Roosevelt","1933-1945"],["33rd president","Harry S. Truman","1945-1953"],["34th president","Dwight D. Eisenhower","1953-1961"],["35th president","John F. Kennedy","1961-1963"],["36th president","Lyndon B. Johnson","1963-1969"],["37th president","Richard Nixon","1969-1974"],["38th president","Gerald Ford","1974-1977"],["39th president","Jimmy Carter","1977-1981"],["40th president","Ronald Reagan","1981-1989"],["41st president","George H. W. Bush","1989-1993"],["42nd president","Bill Clinton","1993-2001"],["43rd president","George W. Bush","2001-2009"],["44th president","Barack Obama","2009-2017"],["45th president","Donald Trump","2017-2021; later also the 47th"],["46th president","Joe Biden","2021-2025"],["47th president","Donald Trump","Began a second term in 2025"],["George Washington","1st president"],["John Adams","2nd president"],["Thomas Jefferson","3rd president"],["James Madison","4th president"],["James Monroe","5th president"],["John Quincy Adams","6th president"],["Andrew Jackson","7th president"],["Abraham Lincoln","16th president"],["Ulysses S. Grant","18th president"],["Theodore Roosevelt","26th president"],["Woodrow Wilson","28th president"],["Franklin D. Roosevelt","32nd president"],["Harry S. Truman","33rd president"],["Dwight D. Eisenhower","34th president"],["John F. Kennedy","35th president"],["Lyndon B. Johnson","36th president"],["Richard Nixon","37th president"],["Ronald Reagan","40th president"],["Bill Clinton","42nd president"],["Barack Obama","44th president"],["Grover Cleveland","22nd and 24th president"],["Herbert Hoover","31st president"],["Jimmy Carter","39th president"],["Andrew Johnson","17th president"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-reconstruction-gilded-age","id":"us-reconstruction-gilded-age","title":"Reconstruction and the Gilded Age","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"Rebuilding after the Civil War, then the age of big business, immigration, cities and reform (1865-1900).","tags":["reconstruction","gilded age","industry","immigration"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Reconstruction","The years after the Civil War (1865-1877) when the South was rebuilt and rejoined the Union"],["Freedmen's Bureau","Agency that helped formerly enslaved people with food, schools and work"],["Black Codes","Southern laws that tried to limit the freedom of Black people after the war"],["Thirteenth Amendment","Ended slavery in 1865"],["Fourteenth Amendment","Gave citizenship and equal protection of the laws to people born in the US (1868)"],["Fifteenth Amendment","Said the right to vote could not be denied because of race (1870)"],["Radical Republicans","Congress members who wanted strong action to protect freed people"],["Andrew Johnson","President who clashed with Congress and was impeached in 1868 but stayed in office"],["Impeachment","Formal charges against an official that the House brings; the Senate holds the trial"],["Civil Rights Act of 1866","First federal law to define citizenship and equal rights for Black Americans"],["Reconstruction Acts (1867)","Divided the South into military districts and set rules to rejoin the Union"],["Hiram Revels","First Black US senator, from Mississippi, in 1870"],["Carpetbaggers","Name Southerners gave to Northerners who moved South after the war"],["Scalawags","Name given to white Southerners who supported Reconstruction"],["Sharecropping","System where farmers worked land for a share of the crop, often falling into debt"],["Ku Klux Klan","Hate group formed in 1865 that used violence to stop Black Americans from voting"],["Enforcement Acts","Laws of 1870-71 to protect voting rights and fight the Klan"],["Compromise of 1877","Deal that made Rutherford Hayes president and ended Reconstruction"],["Jim Crow laws","Southern laws that separated people by race"],["Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)","Supreme Court allowed 'separate but equal' public facilities"],["Historically Black colleges","Colleges like Howard and Fisk were founded to educate freed people"],["Booker T. Washington","Educator who founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama"],["Gilded Age","Period of great wealth for a few and hardship for many, roughly 1870s to 1900"],["Mark Twain","Author who named the era 'the Gilded Age' in a novel"],["Industrialization","Growth of factories and machines making goods"],["Robber barons","Critics' name for rich business owners accused of unfair practices"],["Andrew Carnegie","Steel tycoon who later gave away millions to build libraries"],["John D. Rockefeller","Founder of Standard Oil, the largest oil company"],["J.P. Morgan","Banker who financed and organized huge companies"],["Cornelius Vanderbilt","Railroad and shipping tycoon"],["Monopoly","When one company controls an industry, leaving buyers little choice"],["Trust","A group of companies joined to control a market"],["Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)","Law meant to stop monopolies"],["Laissez-faire","Idea that government should stay out of business"],["Thomas Edison","Inventor of the practical light bulb and a research laboratory at Menlo Park"],["Alexander Graham Bell","Patented the telephone in 1876"],["Bessemer process","Method for making steel cheaply and in large amounts"],["Skyscraper","Tall steel-frame building; first rose in Chicago in the 1880s"],["Electric streetcar","Let cities spread outward"],["Urbanization","Growth of cities"],["Tenement","Crowded city apartment building, often with poor light and air"],["Jacob Riis","Photographer who showed the crowded lives of poor people in New York"],["Jane Addams","Founded Hull House in Chicago to help immigrants and the poor"],["Settlement house","Community center in a poor neighborhood offering classes and care"],["Ellis Island","New York immigration station that opened in 1892"],["Statue of Liberty","Gift from France, dedicated in 1886"],["Angel Island","California immigration station that mostly processed Asian immigrants"],["Nativism","Favoring native-born people over immigrants"],["Old immigrants","Mostly from northern and western Europe"],["New immigrants","Late 1800s arrivals from southern and eastern Europe, like Italy and Poland"],["Labor union","A group of workers who join to ask for better pay and conditions"],["American Federation of Labor","Union group led by Samuel Gompers that organized skilled workers"],["Samuel Gompers","Founding leader of the AFL"],["Strike","Workers refusing to work until their demands are met"],["Haymarket Affair (1886)","A Chicago labor rally ended in a bomb blast and deaths"],["Homestead Strike (1892)","Steelworkers' strike in Pennsylvania against Carnegie Steel"],["Pullman Strike (1894)","Railroad workers' strike that stopped trains across the nation"],["Eugene Debs","Leader of the American Railway Union during the Pullman Strike"],["Child labor","Children working in mines and factories, common before reform laws"],["Populist Party","1890s farmers' party that wanted silver coins, regulation of railroads and an income tax"],["William Jennings Bryan","Populist-backed candidate famous for the 'Cross of Gold' speech in 1896"],["Gold standard","Money system where paper money is tied to gold"],["Political machine","Organization that controlled a city's government, such as Tammany Hall"],["Boss Tweed","Leader of Tammany Hall in New York, jailed for corruption"],["Spoils system","Giving government jobs to supporters"],["Pendleton Act (1883)","Created a civil service system where jobs go by merit"],["James Garfield","Twentieth president, shot in 1881 by a man who wanted a government job"],["Interstate Commerce Act (1887)","First law to regulate railroads"],["Spanish-American War (1898)","War with Spain that gave the US Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines"],["USS Maine","Battleship that exploded in Havana harbor in 1898, increasing calls for war"],["Rough Riders","Volunteer cavalry led by Theodore Roosevelt in Cuba"],["Annexation of Hawaii (1898)","The US took over the islands after Queen Liliuokalani was removed in 1893"],["Queen Liliuokalani","Last queen of Hawaii"],["Alaska Purchase (1867)","US bought Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million"],["Seward's Folly","Critics' mocking name for the Alaska purchase"],["Progressive Era","Reform period from about 1890 to 1920"],["Ida B. Wells","Journalist who wrote against lynching and for justice"],["Susan B. Anthony","Leader of the fight for women's right to vote"],["Centennial Exposition (1876)","World's fair in Philadelphia marking 100 years of independence"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-roaring-twenties-depression","id":"us-roaring-twenties-depression","title":"The 1920s and the Great Depression","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"From the Roaring Twenties through the stock market crash, hard times and the New Deal.","tags":["1920s","great depression","new deal","dust bowl"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Roaring Twenties","The lively 1920s, a time of new products, jazz and rising prosperity for many"],["Jazz Age","Nickname for the 1920s, when jazz music became popular"],["Harlem Renaissance","1920s flowering of Black art, music and writing centered in Harlem, New York"],["Langston Hughes","Poet of the Harlem Renaissance"],["Louis Armstrong","Jazz trumpeter and singer who became a star in the 1920s"],["Duke Ellington","Bandleader and composer who played at Harlem's Cotton Club"],["Prohibition","Ban on making and selling alcohol, from 1920 to 1933"],["18th Amendment","Started Prohibition"],["21st Amendment","Ended Prohibition in 1933"],["Speakeasy","Secret place that sold alcohol during Prohibition"],["Flapper","Young woman of the 1920s known for short hair and modern fashion"],["Charles Lindbergh","Made the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic, in 1927"],["Model T","Henry Ford's affordable car, first sold in 1908"],["Assembly line","Factory method where a product moves past workers, each doing one job"],["Henry Ford","Car maker who made automobiles cheap enough for many families"],["Mass production","Making large amounts of goods quickly using standard parts"],["Radio","New in the 1920s; families gathered to hear music, news and ball games"],["Babe Ruth","Baseball star who hit 60 home runs in 1927"],["Installment plan","Buying now and paying in small payments over time"],["Red Scare (1919-20)","Fear of communists and radicals after World War I"],["Immigration quotas","1920s laws limiting how many people could come from each country"],["Scopes Trial (1925)","Tennessee trial over teaching evolution in public schools"],["Calvin Coolidge","President from 1923 to 1929, known for supporting business"],["Herbert Hoover","President when the Great Depression began"],["Stock market","Place where shares in companies are bought and sold"],["Buying on margin","Buying stocks with borrowed money"],["Stock market crash (1929)","Stock prices fell sharply in October 1929, starting the Great Depression"],["Black Tuesday","October 29, 1929, one of the worst days of the crash"],["Great Depression","Severe economic slump in the 1930s with many job losses"],["Unemployment","When people who want jobs cannot find them"],["Bank run","When many people try to withdraw money at once, and banks fail"],["Hoovervilles","Camps of shacks for homeless people during the Depression"],["Bread line","Line of hungry people waiting for free food"],["Soup kitchen","Place serving free meals to people in need"],["Dust Bowl","1930s drought and dust storms across the southern Plains"],["Black Sunday (1935)","April 14, a giant dust storm on the Plains"],["Okies","Nickname for people who left Oklahoma and nearby states for California"],["The Grapes of Wrath","John Steinbeck's novel about a family leaving the Dust Bowl"],["Dorothea Lange","Photographer whose pictures such as 'Migrant Mother' showed Depression hardship"],["Bonus Army (1932)","Veterans who marched to Washington asking for early payment of a bonus"],["Smoot-Hawley Tariff","1930 law raising taxes on imported goods, which hurt world trade"],["Franklin D. Roosevelt","Elected in 1932; promised a New Deal"],["New Deal","Roosevelt's programs for relief, recovery and reform"],["Fireside chats","Roosevelt's radio talks explaining his plans in a calm voice"],["First hundred days","Spring 1933, when Congress passed many New Deal laws quickly"],["Bank holiday (1933)","Roosevelt closed banks briefly to check which were safe"],["FDIC","Created in 1933 to insure bank deposits"],["Civilian Conservation Corps","Gave young men jobs planting trees and building parks"],["Works Progress Administration","Gave jobs building roads, schools and public art"],["Tennessee Valley Authority","Built dams and brought electricity to the Tennessee River region"],["Social Security Act (1935)","Created pensions for older Americans and help for the unemployed"],["SEC","Securities and Exchange Commission, which oversees stock markets, formed in 1934"],["Wagner Act (1935)","Protected workers' right to form unions"],["Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)","Set a minimum wage and a maximum workweek and limited child labor"],["Eleanor Roosevelt","First lady who spoke out for the poor and for civil rights"],["Mary McLeod Bethune","Educator who advised FDR and led efforts on Black youth issues"],["Frances Perkins","First woman in a US cabinet, Secretary of Labor under FDR"],["Huey Long","Louisiana senator who proposed the Share Our Wealth plan"],["Court-packing plan (1937)","Roosevelt's failed plan to add more Supreme Court justices"],["Hindenburg disaster (1937)","German airship burst into flames in New Jersey"],["Amelia Earhart","Pilot who flew solo across the Atlantic in 1932 and vanished in 1937"],["Jesse Owens","Track star who won four gold medals at the 1936 Berlin Olympics"],["Joe Louis","Heavyweight boxing champion who became a national hero"],["Radio dramas","Shows like The Shadow and Fibber McGee entertained families"],["Gone with the Wind","1939 film that won many Academy Awards"],["The Wizard of Oz","Film released in 1939"],["Monopoly game","Board game that became popular during the Depression"],["Hoover Dam","Huge dam on the Colorado River finished in 1936"],["Golden Gate Bridge","San Francisco bridge opened in 1937"],["Empire State Building","New York skyscraper opened in 1931, then the world's tallest"],["Recession","A period of falling business activity and rising unemployment"],["Deflation","A general fall in prices"],["Relief, recovery, reform","The three Rs: the main goals of the New Deal"],["Mexican repatriation","In the 1930s many Mexican Americans were pressured or forced to leave the US"],["End of the Depression","Defense spending for World War II finally brought full employment"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-westward-expansion","id":"us-westward-expansion","title":"Westward Expansion","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"Trails, territories, gold, railroads and the people who lived on the lands of the American West.","tags":["west","oregon trail","gold rush","manifest destiny"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"What it means","cards":[["Manifest Destiny","1840s belief that the US was meant to spread across the continent"],["Oregon Trail","Overland route of about 2,000 miles from Missouri to Oregon, used by wagon trains"],["Wagon train","A group of covered wagons traveling west together"],["Prairie schooner","Nickname for a covered wagon"],["Pioneers","People who settled new lands ahead of others"],["Independence, Missouri","A common starting town for the Oregon Trail"],["Santa Fe Trail","Trade route from Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico"],["Mormon Trail","Route Brigham Young led members of the Latter-day Saints to Utah in 1847"],["Brigham Young","Led the Mormon pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley"],["Texas Revolution (1835-36)","Texans fought to break away from Mexico"],["The Alamo (1836)","Mission in San Antonio where Texan defenders fell after a 13-day siege"],["Sam Houston","Led Texans to victory at San Jacinto and became president of the Republic of Texas"],["Republic of Texas","Independent nation from 1836 to 1845"],["Texas annexation (1845)","Texas joined the United States as a state"],["Mexican-American War (1846-48)","War between the US and Mexico over Texas and western lands"],["Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)","Ended the Mexican-American War; Mexico gave up California, Nevada, Utah and more"],["Mexican Cession","Land the US received from Mexico in 1848"],["Gadsden Purchase (1853)","US bought a strip of land from Mexico for a southern rail route"],["Oregon Treaty (1846)","Agreement with Britain that set the northwest border at the 49th parallel"],["Gold Rush (1848-49)","Gold found at Sutter's Mill in California drew about 300,000 people"],["Forty-niners","Gold seekers who came to California in 1849"],["James Marshall","Found gold at Sutter's Mill in January 1848"],["Prospector","A person who searches for valuable minerals"],["Boomtown","A town that grows suddenly, often near a gold or silver find"],["Ghost town","A town left empty after the mines or railroads moved on"],["Comstock Lode","Huge silver discovery in Nevada in 1859"],["Pony Express (1860-61)","Rider relay that carried mail between Missouri and California in about ten days"],["Telegraph","Machine that sent messages by electric wire; it ended the Pony Express in 1861"],["Homestead Act (1862)","Gave 160 acres free to settlers who farmed it for five years"],["Homesteader","A settler who claimed land under the Homestead Act"],["Sod house","Prairie home built of cut blocks of grass and soil"],["Exodusters","Black families who moved from the South to Kansas in the 1870s"],["Transcontinental railroad","Rail line across the US, completed in 1869"],["Promontory Summit, Utah","Site where the two railroads joined in 1869 with a golden spike"],["Union Pacific","Railroad company that built west from Nebraska"],["Central Pacific","Railroad company that built east from California"],["Chinese railroad workers","Thousands of immigrants who did dangerous work building the Central Pacific"],["Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)","Law that banned most Chinese immigration for ten years, then longer"],["Cattle drive","Moving herds of cattle on foot to railroad towns"],["Chisholm Trail","Route cattle drovers used from Texas to Kansas"],["Cowboy","A worker who tends cattle on ranches and drives"],["Vaquero","Mexican horseback herder whose methods shaped cowboy life"],["Buffalo (bison)","Large grazing animal of the plains that Plains peoples depended on"],["Great Plains","Wide grassland region in the middle of North America"],["Plains Indians","Nations such as the Lakota, Cheyenne, Comanche and Crow who lived on the Plains"],["Lakota Sioux","Plains nation of the northern plains and Black Hills"],["Black Hills","Lakota sacred lands; gold found there in 1874 led to conflict"],["Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)","Promised the Black Hills to the Lakota; later broken"],["Sitting Bull","Lakota leader who resisted giving up Plains lands"],["Crazy Horse","Lakota war leader who fought at Little Bighorn"],["Battle of Little Bighorn (1876)","Native warriors defeated Custer's troops in Montana"],["George Custer","US Army officer killed at Little Bighorn"],["Wounded Knee (1890)","Tragic killing of many Lakota people by US soldiers in South Dakota"],["Reservation","Land set aside by treaty or law for Native nations to live on"],["Dawes Act (1887)","Law that split reservation land into private plots, shrinking Native holdings"],["Indian boarding schools","Schools that took Native children from families to change their culture"],["Chief Joseph","Nez Perce leader who led a long retreat in 1877 and said he would fight no more forever"],["Geronimo","Apache leader who resisted US forces in the Southwest"],["Cherokee removal","Forced move of the Cherokee from their southeastern homes in the 1830s"],["Donner Party","California-bound pioneers trapped by winter snow in 1846-47"],["Whitman Mission","Missionary settlement in Oregon Country involved in tragic conflict in 1847"],["Lewis and Clark","Explorers of the Louisiana Purchase 1804-1806 who opened interest in the West"],["Louisiana Purchase","1803 land deal from France that opened the West"],["Frontier","Edge of settled land, where few people lived"],["Frederick Jackson Turner","Historian who argued in 1893 that the frontier shaped American life"],["Annie Oakley","Sharpshooter famous in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show"],["Buffalo Bill Cody","Showman whose Wild West show toured the US and Europe"],["Laura Ingalls Wilder","Author of the Little House books about prairie childhood"],["Mountain men","Trappers who lived in the Rockies and traded furs"],["Jim Bridger","Mountain man and guide who knew the Rockies well"],["Kit Carson","Scout and guide in the West"],["Rocky Mountains","Mountain chain that wagon trains crossed through passes like South Pass"],["South Pass","Wide Rocky Mountain gap in Wyoming used by the Oregon Trail"],["Fort Laramie","Fort in Wyoming that served as a stop on the Oregon Trail"],["Statehood for California (1850)","California entered as a free state after the Gold Rush"],["Utah Territory","Settled by Mormon pioneers around Salt Lake City"],["Land rush (1889)","Settlers raced to claim free lands in Oklahoma"],["Oklahoma Territory","Opened to settlers by land runs beginning in 1889"],["Barbed wire","Cheap fencing that let ranchers and farmers close off land in the 1870s"],["Steel plow","John Deere's plow that could cut through tough prairie sod"],["Windmill","Tool that pumped water for farms and ranches on dry plains"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/us-world-wars","id":"us-world-wars","title":"America in World War I and World War II","category":"history","subject":"US History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"How the United States entered, fought and was changed by the two world wars.","tags":["world war i","world war ii","home front","pearl harbor"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["World War I","Global war from 1914 to 1918 among the Allies and the Central Powers"],["Allied Powers","Britain, France, Russia and later the US and Italy"],["Central Powers","Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria"],["Archduke Franz Ferdinand","Austrian heir whose 1914 assassination set off the war"],["Neutrality","Not taking sides in a war; the US stayed neutral until 1917"],["Lusitania (1915)","British passenger ship sunk by a German submarine, killing 128 Americans"],["Zimmermann Telegram","Secret 1917 German message proposing an alliance with Mexico, which angered Americans"],["US enters WWI (April 1917)","Congress declared war on Germany after submarine attacks"],["Woodrow Wilson","President during World War I who proposed the Fourteen Points"],["Fourteen Points","Wilson's plan for peace, including a League of Nations"],["American Expeditionary Forces","US troops sent to Europe, led by General John Pershing"],["John J. Pershing","Commander of US forces in Europe in WWI"],["Trench warfare","Fighting from long ditches, common on the Western Front"],["Armistice (Nov. 11, 1918)","Cease-fire that ended the fighting in World War I"],["Treaty of Versailles","1919 peace treaty with Germany"],["League of Nations","International group meant to keep peace; the US Senate refused to join"],["Liberty bonds","War bonds citizens bought to lend money to the government"],["Selective Service","System for drafting people into the military"],["19th Amendment (1920)","Gave women the right to vote"],["Great Migration","Millions of Black Americans moved from the South to northern cities, starting around 1916"],["Rise of dictators","In the 1930s Hitler, Mussolini and others took power in Europe and Japan expanded in Asia"],["World War II","Global war from 1939 to 1945"],["Axis Powers","Germany, Italy and Japan"],["Allies in WWII","Britain, the Soviet Union, the US, China and others"],["Adolf Hitler","Nazi dictator of Germany who started the war"],["Neutrality Acts","1930s laws trying to keep the US out of foreign wars"],["Lend-Lease Act (1941)","Let the US supply weapons and goods to Allies"],["Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941)","Japan's surprise attack on the US naval base in Hawaii"],["Infamous date","FDR called December 7, 1941 'a date which will live in infamy'"],["Franklin D. Roosevelt","President during most of the Depression and World War II"],["Holocaust","Nazi Germany's murder of six million Jewish people and millions of others"],["D-Day (June 6, 1944)","Allied landing in Normandy, France, the largest sea invasion ever"],["Dwight Eisenhower","Supreme Allied commander in Europe; later president"],["Normandy","Region of France where the D-Day landings occurred"],["Battle of the Bulge (1944-45)","Germany's last big attack in the West, in Belgium"],["V-E Day (May 8, 1945)","Victory in Europe: Germany surrendered"],["Battle of Midway (1942)","Naval battle that turned the Pacific war toward the US"],["Island hopping","US plan to take key Pacific islands and skip others"],["Iwo Jima","Pacific island taken by US Marines in 1945; famous flag-raising photo"],["Douglas MacArthur","General who led US forces in the Pacific"],["Chester Nimitz","Admiral in charge of the US Pacific Fleet"],["Manhattan Project","Secret US program that built the first atomic bombs"],["Atomic bombs (Aug. 1945)","Dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, before Japan's surrender"],["V-J Day (Aug. 14-15, 1945)","Japan announced surrender; formal signing on September 2"],["United Nations","International organization formed in 1945 to keep peace"],["Home front","What people did at home to support the war"],["Rationing","Limiting how much of items like sugar, gas and rubber people could buy"],["Victory garden","Home vegetable garden planted to ease food shortages"],["Rosie the Riveter","Symbol of women who worked in factories during the war"],["War bonds","Savings bonds sold to help pay for the war"],["Scrap drives","Families collected metal, rubber and paper for the war effort"],["Tuskegee Airmen","Black fighter pilots who trained in Alabama and served with honor"],["Navajo Code Talkers","Marines who used the Navajo language to send unbreakable messages"],["442nd Regimental Combat Team","Japanese American unit that became the most decorated for its size"],["Japanese American incarceration","Over 100,000 Japanese Americans were forced from their homes to camps; it is now seen as a grave injustice"],["Executive Order 9066","1942 order that allowed the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast"],["Women's Army Corps","Created in 1942 so women could serve in the Army"],["WASP","Women Airforce Service Pilots, who flew military aircraft within the US"],["G.I. Bill (1944)","Gave veterans help with college, loans and housing"],["Yalta Conference (1945)","Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin planned the end of the war"],["Winston Churchill","British prime minister during most of the war"],["Joseph Stalin","Leader of the Soviet Union"],["Harry Truman","Became president when FDR died in April 1945"],["Marshall Plan (1948)","US aid that helped rebuild Western Europe"],["Nuremberg Trials","Courts that tried Nazi leaders for war crimes"],["Anne Frank","Jewish girl whose diary describes hiding from the Nazis in Amsterdam"],["Code breaking","Allied codebreakers broke Axis codes and helped win key battles"],["Radar","Technology using radio waves to find aircraft and ships"],["Sgt. Alvin York","WWI soldier famed for bravery in the Argonne Forest"],["Harlem Hellfighters","369th Infantry, a Black regiment that fought with French forces in WWI"],["Spanish flu (1918)","Worldwide flu outbreak that killed millions near the end of WWI"],["Red Cross in wartime","Helped wounded soldiers and war refugees"],["Total war","When a country uses all its resources, including factories and citizens, for war"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-african-kingdoms","id":"world-african-kingdoms","title":"African Kingdoms and Empires","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Kush, Aksum, Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Great Zimbabwe, Benin and other African civilizations.","tags":["africa","mali","songhai","ghana","timbuktu"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Kush","Kingdom south of Egypt in Nubia; its rulers once ruled Egypt as the 25th dynasty"],["Meroe","Kushite capital famous for iron working and pyramids"],["Aksum (Axum)","Powerful trading kingdom in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea"],["Ezana","Aksumite king who adopted Christianity in the 300s"],["Stelae of Aksum","Tall carved stone monuments in Aksum"],["Ge'ez","Ancient language and script of Aksum, still used in church"],["Sahara","World's largest hot desert, crossed by trade caravans"],["Sahel","Dry grassland belt south of the Sahara"],["Savanna","Grassland with scattered trees"],["Trans-Saharan trade","Caravans carried gold and salt across the desert"],["Camel","Desert animal that made trade across the Sahara possible"],["Caravan","Group of traders traveling together"],["Salt","Valuable in West Africa; traded for gold"],["Gold","Mined in West Africa and traded to North Africa and beyond"],["Ghana Empire","West African trading empire, about 300-1100 CE (not today's Ghana)"],["Wagadu","Local name for the Ghana Empire"],["Kumbi Saleh","Ghana's capital and trading city"],["Mali Empire","Large West African empire that peaked in the 1300s"],["Sundiata Keita","Founder of the Mali Empire, about 1235"],["Epic of Sundiata","Story of the founder of Mali, told by griots"],["Griot","West African storyteller and keeper of history"],["Mansa","Title meaning 'king' in Mali"],["Mansa Musa","Mali's king famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324"],["Hajj","Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca"],["Timbuktu","Mali trading city and center of Islamic learning"],["Sankore","Mosque and university in Timbuktu"],["Djinguereber Mosque","Mud-brick mosque in Timbuktu, built in the 1300s"],["Manuscripts of Timbuktu","Hundreds of thousands of handwritten books on many subjects"],["Ibn Battuta","Moroccan traveler who visited Mali in the 1350s"],["Songhai Empire","Largest West African empire, 1400s-1591"],["Sunni Ali","Songhai ruler who built the empire and took Timbuktu"],["Askia the Great","Songhai ruler who strengthened the empire and promoted learning"],["Gao","Songhai capital on the Niger River"],["Battle of Tondibi (1591)","Moroccan forces with guns defeated Songhai"],["Niger River","Major river of West Africa"],["Great Zimbabwe","Stone city built in southern Africa, about 1100-1450"],["Zimbabwe (word)","From a word meaning 'stone houses' or 'venerated houses'"],["Shona","People linked to Great Zimbabwe"],["Swahili Coast","East African coast where African and Arab trade cultures blended"],["Kilwa","Wealthy Swahili trading city on an island"],["Swahili","Bantu language with many Arabic words, spoken in East Africa"],["Mombasa","Trading port on the Kenyan coast"],["Indian Ocean trade","Monsoon winds carried ships between Africa, Arabia and Asia"],["Dhow","Triangular-sail ship used on the Indian Ocean"],["Benin Kingdom","Forest kingdom in today's Nigeria with a strong ruler, the Oba"],["Oba","King of Benin"],["Benin Bronzes","Famous plaques and sculptures made by Benin artists"],["Ife","Yoruba city known for its fine brass and terra-cotta heads"],["Yoruba","People of southwestern Nigeria with a rich art tradition"],["Hausa city-states","Trading states in northern Nigeria, like Kano"],["Kanem-Bornu","Empire near Lake Chad, long-lasting"],["Ethiopia","African land with ancient Christian kingdoms and never colonized for long"],["Lalibela","Town in Ethiopia with churches carved from rock in the 1200s"],["Queen Nzinga","Ruler of Ndongo and Matamba who resisted Portuguese rule in the 1600s"],["Kongo Kingdom","Central African kingdom that traded with Portugal"],["Bantu migrations","Spread of Bantu-speaking peoples across much of Africa over centuries"],["Iron working","Skill that spread through sub-Saharan Africa and made tools stronger"],["Nok culture","Ancient culture of Nigeria known for terra-cotta sculpture"],["Transatlantic slave trade","Forced removal of millions of Africans to the Americas from the 1500s to the 1800s"],["Colonialism","Control of a land by a foreign power"],["Berlin Conference (1884-85)","European powers set rules for dividing Africa among themselves"],["Scramble for Africa","European takeover of most of Africa between 1880 and 1914"],["Shaka Zulu","Leader who built the powerful Zulu kingdom in the early 1800s"],["Menelik II","Ethiopian emperor who defeated Italy at Adwa in 1896"],["Battle of Adwa (1896)","Ethiopian victory that secured its independence"],["Kwame Nkrumah","Led Ghana to independence in 1957"],["Independence era","Most African countries gained independence between 1950 and 1975"],["Nelson Mandela","Anti-apartheid leader who became South Africa's first Black president"],["Apartheid","South African system of racial separation, ended in the early 1990s"],["Wangari Maathai","Kenyan environmentalist who founded the Green Belt Movement"],["Africa","Second-largest continent, with 54 countries"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-ancient-china","id":"world-ancient-china","title":"Ancient and Imperial China","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Dynasties, philosophers, inventions and the Silk Road, from the Shang to the Qing.","tags":["china","dynasty","silk road","great wall"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Yellow River (Huang He)","River where early Chinese civilization began"],["Yangtze River","China's longest river"],["Dynasty","A line of rulers from one family"],["Shang Dynasty","Early dynasty known for bronze and oracle bones, about 1600-1046 BCE"],["Oracle bones","Animal bones with the earliest Chinese writing, used to ask the gods questions"],["Zhou Dynasty","Long dynasty that introduced the idea of the Mandate of Heaven"],["Mandate of Heaven","Belief that Heaven gave a just ruler the right to rule and could take it away"],["Confucius","Teacher (551-479 BCE) who stressed respect, learning and good government"],["Confucianism","Philosophy of proper behavior, family loyalty and education"],["Filial piety","Respect and care for parents and elders"],["Daoism (Taoism)","Philosophy of living in harmony with nature, linked to Laozi"],["Laozi","Traditional author of the Daodejing"],["Yin and yang","Opposite forces that balance each other"],["Legalism","Philosophy that strong laws and harsh punishment keep order"],["Warring States Period","Time of war among rival Chinese states, ending in 221 BCE"],["Qin Dynasty","First dynasty to unite China, 221-206 BCE"],["Qin Shi Huang","First emperor of a unified China"],["Great Wall of China","Long defensive walls begun by Qin and rebuilt by later dynasties"],["Terra-cotta Army","Thousands of clay soldiers buried with Qin Shi Huang"],["Standardization","Qin made weights, measures, money and writing the same across China"],["Han Dynasty","Long dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) that expanded China and grew trade"],["Han Wudi","Han emperor who expanded the empire and started the Silk Road trade"],["Silk Road","Network of trade routes linking China with the Mediterranean"],["Zhang Qian","Han envoy whose travels helped open the Silk Road"],["Silk","Fine cloth made by silkworms; China kept the method secret for centuries"],["Paper","Invented in China, improved by Cai Lun around 105 CE"],["Printing","Woodblock printing began in China by the Tang era; movable type came later"],["Gunpowder","Developed in China, first used for fireworks and later for weapons"],["Compass","Magnetic tool invented in China for finding direction"],["Four Great Inventions","Paper, printing, gunpowder and the compass"],["Seismograph","Zhang Heng's device (132 CE) for detecting earthquakes"],["Civil service exam","Test used to choose government officials by merit"],["Tang Dynasty","618-907; a golden age of poetry, art and trade"],["Li Bai","Famous Tang poet"],["Du Fu","Tang poet known for poems about people's hardships"],["Wu Zetian","Only woman to rule China as emperor, in the Tang era"],["Chang'an","Tang capital, one of the world's biggest cities"],["Song Dynasty","960-1279; saw paper money, movable type and great cities"],["Paper money","First widely used in Song China"],["Grand Canal","Long waterway linking northern and southern China, begun in the Sui era"],["Sui Dynasty","Short dynasty that reunified China in 589 and built the Grand Canal"],["Mongols","Nomadic people who conquered China under Kublai Khan"],["Genghis Khan","Founder of the Mongol Empire"],["Kublai Khan","Mongol ruler who founded the Yuan Dynasty in 1271"],["Yuan Dynasty","Mongol-led dynasty in China, 1271-1368"],["Marco Polo","Italian merchant who wrote about his travels in Asia"],["Ming Dynasty","1368-1644; Chinese rule restored; built the Forbidden City"],["Zheng He","Admiral who led huge treasure fleets across the Indian Ocean in the early 1400s"],["Forbidden City","Imperial palace complex in Beijing"],["Beijing","Capital of China from the Ming era onward"],["Qing Dynasty","Last dynasty, 1644-1912, ruled by Manchus"],["Manchus","People from northeast China who founded the Qing"],["Queue","Braided hairstyle men were required to wear under the Qing"],["Opium Wars","Conflicts with Britain in the 1800s over trade that weakened Qing China"],["Taiping Rebellion","Massive 1850-1864 uprising during the Qing era"],["Boxer Rebellion","1899-1901 uprising against foreign influence"],["Puyi","Last emperor of China, who gave up the throne in 1912"],["Sun Yat-sen","Leader of the 1911 revolution that ended imperial rule"],["Republic of China","Government that began in 1912"],["Chinese characters","Writing system in which each symbol stands for a word or idea"],["Calligraphy","Art of beautiful brush writing"],["Abacus","Counting frame with beads"],["Acupuncture","Medicine practice using thin needles in the body"],["Porcelain","Fine ceramic called 'china' in English"],["Terraced rice paddies","Stepped fields for growing rice on hills"],["Rice","Main food in southern China"],["Millet","Main grain in early northern China"],["Tea","Drink used in China for thousands of years"],["Chinese New Year","Major holiday based on the lunar calendar"],["Lunar calendar","Calendar following the Moon's phases"],["Chinese zodiac","Twelve-year cycle of animals"],["Dragon","Symbol of imperial power and good fortune"],["Great Wall length","All its sections together measure thousands of miles"],["Shi Huangdi's tomb","Large burial complex near Xi'an"],["Xi'an","City near where the Terra-cotta Army was found in 1974"],["Han Chinese","Largest ethnic group in China"],["Peasant","Farmer; most people were peasants"],["Scholar-official","Educated person who served the government"],["Cultural Revolution","1966-1976 political campaign in China that caused great disruption"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-ancient-egypt","id":"world-ancient-egypt","title":"Ancient Egypt","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"Pharaohs, pyramids, the Nile and daily life in ancient Egypt.","tags":["egypt","pharaoh","pyramids","nile"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Nile River","Long river whose yearly flood made Egyptian farmland rich"],["Delta","Fan-shaped land where the Nile meets the Mediterranean Sea"],["Upper and Lower Egypt","The two regions joined as one kingdom around 3100 BCE"],["Narmer","King traditionally credited with uniting Egypt"],["Pharaoh","Ruler of ancient Egypt, seen as a god-king"],["Dynasty","A line of rulers from the same family"],["Old Kingdom","Period of the great pyramids, about 2686-2181 BCE"],["Middle Kingdom","Period of reunified and strong rule, about 2055-1650 BCE"],["New Kingdom","Period of Egypt's greatest power, about 1550-1070 BCE"],["Pyramid","Huge stone tomb built for a pharaoh"],["Great Pyramid of Giza","Built for Khufu; the tallest human-made structure for thousands of years"],["Khufu","Pharaoh who built the Great Pyramid"],["Sphinx","Giant statue with a lion's body and a human head at Giza"],["Giza","Site near Cairo with the three famous pyramids"],["Imhotep","Architect of the first step pyramid, later honored as a god of healing"],["Step Pyramid of Djoser","Egypt's first large stone pyramid, at Saqqara"],["Mummy","A preserved body wrapped in cloth"],["Mummification","Process of drying and wrapping a body so it would last"],["Embalmer","Priest who prepared a body for burial"],["Canopic jars","Jars that held organs removed from a mummy"],["Sarcophagus","Stone coffin"],["Afterlife","Life believed to follow death"],["Book of the Dead","Spells and prayers placed in tombs to guide the dead"],["Valley of the Kings","Burial place of New Kingdom pharaohs near Luxor"],["Tutankhamun","Boy pharaoh whose nearly untouched tomb was found in 1922"],["Howard Carter","British archaeologist who found Tutankhamun's tomb"],["Hatshepsut","Female pharaoh who sent a famous trading expedition to Punt"],["Ramses II","Pharaoh who ruled for 66 years and built many monuments"],["Akhenaten","Pharaoh who promoted worship of one sun disk, Aten"],["Nefertiti","Queen and wife of Akhenaten, known for a famous bust"],["Cleopatra VII","Last active ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt"],["Ptolemaic Dynasty","Greek-speaking family that ruled Egypt after Alexander the Great"],["Hieroglyphs","Egyptian picture writing"],["Rosetta Stone","Slab with the same text in three scripts, which helped decode hieroglyphs"],["Jean-Francois Champollion","French scholar who deciphered hieroglyphs in 1822"],["Papyrus","Paper-like writing material made from a river plant"],["Scribe","Trained writer who recorded information"],["Cartouche","Oval ring around a royal name in hieroglyphs"],["Ra","Sun god, one of the most important Egyptian gods"],["Osiris","God of the afterlife and rebirth"],["Isis","Goddess of magic and motherhood"],["Horus","Sky god shown as a falcon"],["Anubis","Jackal-headed god of embalming"],["Thoth","God of writing and wisdom"],["Hathor","Goddess of music, joy and love"],["Bastet","Cat goddess"],["Amun","God who became the king of gods in the New Kingdom"],["Ma'at","Goddess and idea of truth, balance and justice"],["Temple of Karnak","Giant temple complex in Thebes"],["Abu Simbel","Temples carved into a cliff by Ramses II"],["Thebes","Important southern capital, now Luxor"],["Memphis","Ancient capital near modern Cairo"],["Obelisk","Tall four-sided stone pillar topped with a point"],["Inundation","The Nile's yearly flood"],["Silt","Fine, rich soil left behind by the flood"],["Shaduf","Tool with a bucket on a pole used to lift water for fields"],["Irrigation","Bringing water to crops by canals"],["Emmer wheat","Ancient grain used to make bread"],["Linen","Cloth made from flax, common in Egyptian clothing"],["Kohl","Dark eye makeup that also helped reduce glare"],["Senet","Popular Egyptian board game"],["Cataracts of the Nile","Rocky rapids that made some stretches hard to sail"],["Nubia","Land to Egypt's south, a trade partner and sometimes rival"],["Kush","Powerful Nubian kingdom whose rulers once ruled Egypt"],["Hyksos","Foreign rulers who controlled northern Egypt around 1650 BCE"],["Chariot","Light two-wheeled cart pulled by horses, used in war"],["Sea Peoples","Groups of raiders who troubled Mediterranean lands around 1200 BCE"],["Alexander the Great","Conquered Egypt in 332 BCE"],["Alexandria","City founded by Alexander; home of a famous library and lighthouse"],["Pharos of Alexandria","Great lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders"],["Roman conquest of Egypt","Egypt became part of the Roman Empire in 30 BCE"],["Cat in Egypt","Cats were honored and protected"],["Deben","Weight unit used in trading goods"],["Barter","Trading goods without coins, as Egyptians often did"],["Social pyramid","Pharaoh at the top, then nobles and priests, scribes, craftspeople, farmers"],["Soldier","Army member; some became wealthy in the New Kingdom"],["Peasant farmers","Most people; worked the land and helped build monuments in the flood season"],["Pyramid workers","Paid, fed Egyptians who built the pyramids, not slaves as is commonly said"],["Ankh","Symbol meaning life"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-ancient-greece","id":"world-ancient-greece","title":"Ancient Greece","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"City-states, democracy, philosophers, myths, the Olympics and Alexander the Great.","tags":["greece","athens","sparta","democracy","olympics"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Polis","A Greek city-state with its own government"],["Acropolis","High hill in a Greek city with temples; the Parthenon is on Athens's"],["Parthenon","Temple to Athena in Athens, built in the 400s BCE"],["Agora","Open marketplace and meeting place"],["Athens","City-state known for democracy, art and learning"],["Sparta","City-state known for its strong military"],["Democracy","Government by the people; began in Athens"],["Cleisthenes","Athenian leader who set up reforms that began democracy, about 508 BCE"],["Citizen (Athens)","Free adult male born to Athenian parents; women and enslaved people could not vote"],["Assembly","Athenian meeting where citizens voted on laws"],["Pericles","Athenian leader in the Golden Age who sponsored the Parthenon"],["Golden Age of Athens","The 400s BCE, rich in art, theater and ideas"],["Oligarchy","Rule by a few people, as in Sparta"],["Tyrant","A ruler who took power without a legal right"],["Helots","Enslaved people who farmed for Spartans"],["Spartan training","Boys left home around age seven to train in the military school called the agoge"],["Persian Wars","Greek city-states fought Persia from 499 to 449 BCE"],["Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)","Athens defeated a Persian force"],["Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE)","300 Spartans and allies held a narrow pass against Persia"],["Battle of Salamis (480 BCE)","Greek ships won a sea battle against Persia"],["Delian League","Alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens"],["Peloponnesian War","War between Athens and Sparta, 431-404 BCE; Sparta won"],["Socrates","Philosopher who taught by asking questions"],["Socratic method","Learning by asking and answering questions"],["Plato","Student of Socrates who founded the Academy"],["Aristotle","Student of Plato and teacher of Alexander; studied nearly every subject"],["Philosophy","Greek for 'love of wisdom'"],["Hippocrates","Physician called the father of medicine"],["Euclid","Mathematician who wrote Elements, a famous geometry book"],["Pythagoras","Greek thinker famous for the relationship of the sides of right triangles"],["Archimedes","Greek scientist and inventor from Syracuse who explained levers and buoyancy"],["Herodotus","Writer called the father of history"],["Thucydides","Historian who wrote about the Peloponnesian War"],["Homer","Poet traditionally credited with the Iliad and the Odyssey"],["Iliad","Epic poem about the Trojan War"],["Odyssey","Epic poem about Odysseus's long trip home"],["Trojan Horse","Giant wooden horse in the myth used to enter Troy"],["Aesop","Storyteller linked with fables like the Tortoise and the Hare"],["Sophocles","Playwright who wrote Oedipus Rex"],["Greek tragedy","Serious plays about heroes and their downfall"],["Greek comedy","Funny plays; Aristophanes was a famous writer"],["Amphitheater","Open-air theater with seats in a curve"],["Olympic Games","Contests held at Olympia every four years, starting in 776 BCE by tradition"],["Olympia","Site of the ancient Olympic Games"],["Marathon (race)","Named for a legendary run from Marathon to Athens"],["Zeus","King of the gods"],["Hera","Queen of the gods, goddess of marriage"],["Poseidon","God of the sea"],["Hades","God of the underworld"],["Athena","Goddess of wisdom and crafts; patron of Athens"],["Apollo","God of music, light and healing"],["Artemis","Goddess of the hunt and the Moon"],["Ares","God of war"],["Aphrodite","Goddess of love and beauty"],["Hermes","Messenger of the gods"],["Demeter","Goddess of the harvest"],["Dionysus","God of wine and theater"],["Hephaestus","God of fire and metalwork"],["Hercules","Roman name for Heracles, a hero known for twelve labors"],["Perseus","Hero who defeated Medusa"],["Mount Olympus","Tallest mountain in Greece, home of the gods in myth"],["Oracle of Delphi","Priestess who gave advice thought to come from Apollo"],["Myth","Traditional story about gods and heroes"],["Hoplite","Greek foot soldier with shield and spear"],["Phalanx","Tight formation of soldiers with overlapping shields"],["Trireme","Greek warship with three rows of oars"],["Greek columns","Doric, Ionic and Corinthian styles"],["Amphora","Tall clay jar with two handles"],["Alphabet","Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet and added vowels"],["Philip II","King of Macedonia who united Greece"],["Alexander the Great","Philip's son who conquered Persia and reached India by 326 BCE"],["Hellenistic Age","Era after Alexander when Greek culture spread across his lands"],["Alexandria (Egypt)","City Alexander founded; later a center of learning"],["Library of Alexandria","Famous ancient library in Egypt"],["Colossus of Rhodes","Giant statue of the sun god, one of the Seven Wonders"],["Roman conquest of Greece (146 BCE)","Rome took control of Greece"],["Women in Athens","Could not vote; most worked at home"],["Slavery in Greece","Enslaved people did much of the labor in many city-states"],["Ostracism","Vote to send a citizen away from Athens for ten years"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-ancient-india","id":"world-ancient-india","title":"Ancient and Classical India","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"The Indus Valley, the Maurya and Gupta empires, major religions and ideas from India.","tags":["india","indus valley","maurya","gupta"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Indus River","River in South Asia where an early civilization grew"],["Indus Valley Civilization","Early culture in today's Pakistan and India, about 2600-1900 BCE"],["Harappa","One of the main cities of the Indus Valley Civilization"],["Mohenjo-daro","Major Indus city with a planned layout and a Great Bath"],["Great Bath","Large water tank found at Mohenjo-daro"],["Grid plan","Streets laid out in straight lines, as in Indus cities"],["Indus script","Symbols on seals that have not yet been decoded"],["Seal","Small stone with an image used to mark goods"],["Drainage","Indus cities had covered drains for waste water"],["Monsoon","Seasonal wind that brings heavy rains to South Asia"],["Himalayas","Mountains north of the Indian subcontinent"],["Ganges River","Sacred river in northern India"],["Subcontinent","A large landmass that is part of a continent, like India"],["Vedic period","Era following the Indus cities when the Vedas were composed"],["Vedas","Oldest sacred texts of Hinduism"],["Sanskrit","Ancient language of India used in sacred and scholarly writing"],["Hinduism","Religion with many gods and ideas like karma and dharma"],["Brahman","Hindu idea of the universal spirit"],["Karma","Idea that actions have consequences"],["Dharma","Duty or right way of living"],["Reincarnation","Belief that souls are reborn in new lives"],["Moksha","Release from the cycle of rebirth"],["Upanishads","Texts about the nature of the self and the universe"],["Mahabharata","Long epic poem that includes the Bhagavad Gita"],["Bhagavad Gita","Section of the Mahabharata; a conversation about duty"],["Ramayana","Epic poem about Rama and Sita"],["Caste system","Division of society into groups by birth"],["Varna","Four traditional groupings: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras"],["Dalits","People historically outside the caste system, once called untouchables"],["Siddhartha Gautama","Prince who became the Buddha, about 500s-400s BCE"],["Buddha","Means 'awakened one'"],["Four Noble Truths","Buddhist teaching about suffering and how to end it"],["Eightfold Path","Buddhist guide to right living"],["Nirvana","Peace beyond suffering in Buddhism"],["Bodh Gaya","Place where the Buddha is said to have gained enlightenment"],["Jainism","Religion that strongly stresses nonviolence"],["Mahavira","Teacher who formed Jainism's main teachings"],["Ahimsa","Principle of not harming living beings"],["Mahajanapadas","Sixteen early Indian kingdoms and republics"],["Alexander in India","Alexander the Great reached the Indus region in 326 BCE"],["Chandragupta Maurya","Founded the Maurya Empire, about 321 BCE"],["Maurya Empire","First empire to unite most of India"],["Ashoka","Maurya emperor who embraced Buddhism and nonviolence"],["Ashoka's edicts","Messages carved on pillars and rocks about fair rule"],["Chakravartin","Wheel-turning ruler, an ideal king"],["Arthashastra","Ancient book on government and strategy, linked to Kautilya"],["Pataliputra","Capital of the Maurya Empire"],["Gupta Empire","Dynasty from about 320 to 550 CE, called a golden age"],["Chandragupta I","Founder of the Gupta Empire"],["Kalidasa","Great Sanskrit poet and playwright of the Gupta era"],["Aryabhata","Mathematician and astronomer who wrote about zero and Earth's rotation"],["Zero","Number concept developed in India that made modern math easier"],["Decimal system","Counting in base ten, developed in India"],["Hindu-Arabic numerals","The digits 0 to 9 that came from India and spread through the Arab world"],["Chess","Game that began in India as chaturanga"],["Iron pillar of Delhi","Ancient pillar that has hardly rusted"],["Ajanta caves","Rock-cut Buddhist caves with paintings"],["Ellora caves","Rock-cut temples of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths"],["Stupa","Dome-shaped Buddhist monument"],["Sushruta","Ancient Indian physician known for surgery"],["Ayurveda","Traditional Indian system of medicine"],["Yoga","Practice of body, breath and mind that began in India"],["Spice trade","Pepper and other spices from India were traded to many lands"],["Silk Road in India","Indian goods like cotton, spices and gems moved along trade routes"],["Delhi Sultanate","Muslim rulers in northern India, 1206-1526"],["Mughal Empire","Empire founded by Babur in 1526 that ruled much of India"],["Akbar","Mughal emperor known for religious tolerance and a strong government"],["Shah Jahan","Mughal emperor who built the Taj Mahal"],["Taj Mahal","White marble tomb in Agra built in the 1600s"],["British East India Company","Trading company that gained great power in India"],["Mahatma Gandhi","Led India's nonviolent independence movement"],["Indian independence (1947)","India gained freedom from British rule and was partitioned into India and Pakistan"],["Partition (1947)","Division of British India into India and Pakistan"],["Diwali","Festival of lights, celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains"],["Sikhism","Religion founded by Guru Nanak in the 1400s in Punjab"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-ancient-rome","id":"world-ancient-rome","title":"Ancient Rome","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"From a small city on the Tiber to the Republic and a vast empire, and what Rome left behind.","tags":["rome","republic","empire","caesar"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Rome","City on the Tiber River in Italy that grew into a huge empire"],["Romulus and Remus","Twin brothers in legend who founded Rome in 753 BCE"],["Roman Republic","Government with elected officials, from 509 BCE to 27 BCE"],["Roman Empire","Rome ruled by emperors, beginning in 27 BCE"],["Senate","Council of powerful Romans who advised leaders and made laws"],["Consul","One of two elected leaders of the Republic each year"],["Patricians","Wealthy, noble Roman families"],["Plebeians","Ordinary Roman citizens"],["Tribune","Official who protected the rights of plebeians"],["Twelve Tables","Rome's first written laws, about 450 BCE"],["Punic Wars","Three wars between Rome and Carthage, 264-146 BCE"],["Carthage","City in North Africa that rivaled Rome"],["Hannibal","Carthaginian general who crossed the Alps with war elephants"],["Scipio Africanus","Roman general who defeated Hannibal at Zama in 202 BCE"],["Julius Caesar","General and leader who won Gaul and ruled Rome as dictator"],["Crossing the Rubicon","Caesar's 49 BCE move into Italy with his army, starting a civil war"],["Ides of March","March 15, 44 BCE, when Caesar was killed by senators"],["Dictator (Rome)","A leader given emergency power for a limited time"],["Gaul","Roman name for lands in modern France"],["Mark Antony","Roman general who allied with Cleopatra"],["Augustus","Rome's first emperor; formerly Octavian"],["Octavian","Caesar's adopted heir, who became Augustus"],["Pax Romana","About 200 years of relative peace and prosperity, starting under Augustus"],["Tiberius","Augustus's successor, second emperor"],["Nero","Emperor during the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE"],["Trajan","Emperor under whom the empire was largest, in 117 CE"],["Hadrian","Emperor who built a wall across northern Britain"],["Marcus Aurelius","Emperor and philosopher who wrote Meditations"],["Constantine","Emperor who moved the capital to Constantinople and ended the persecution of Christians"],["Constantinople","New eastern capital, now Istanbul"],["Diocletian","Emperor who split rule of the empire for easier control"],["Fall of Rome (476 CE)","Date often used for the end of the Western Roman Empire"],["Byzantine Empire","Eastern Roman Empire that lasted until 1453"],["Latin","Language of Rome; parent of Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian"],["Roman numerals","Number system using I, V, X, L, C, D and M"],["Legion","Main Roman army unit of about 5,000 soldiers"],["Legionary","Roman soldier"],["Centurion","Officer in charge of about 80 soldiers"],["Gladius","Short sword used by Roman soldiers"],["Testudo","Formation where soldiers locked shields into a shell"],["Roman roads","Paved roads that connected the empire; 'all roads lead to Rome'"],["Aqueduct","Bridge-like channel that carried water to cities"],["Arch","Curved structure the Romans used widely in buildings"],["Concrete","Strong building material the Romans developed"],["Colosseum","Huge arena in Rome for public shows, finished in 80 CE"],["Gladiator","Fighter who entertained crowds in arenas"],["Circus Maximus","Large Roman racetrack for chariots"],["Forum","Public square and center of Roman life"],["Pantheon","Roman temple with a famous domed roof, rebuilt around 126 CE"],["Baths","Public places to wash, relax and meet people"],["Toga","Draped garment worn by Roman citizens"],["Villa","Large country house of wealthy Romans"],["Insula","Apartment building for ordinary city residents"],["Slavery in Rome","Millions of people were enslaved; many were prisoners of war"],["Spartacus","Gladiator who led a large slave revolt from 73 to 71 BCE"],["Jupiter","King of the Roman gods"],["Juno","Queen of the gods"],["Mars","Roman god of war"],["Venus","Roman goddess of love"],["Neptune","Roman god of the sea"],["Minerva","Roman goddess of wisdom"],["Pompeii","Roman city buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE"],["Mount Vesuvius","Volcano near Naples that destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum"],["Pliny the Younger","Roman who wrote an eyewitness account of the Vesuvius eruption"],["Virgil","Poet who wrote the Aeneid"],["Aeneid","Epic poem about Aeneas, a Trojan hero linked to Rome's founding"],["Cicero","Famous Roman speaker and writer"],["Christianity in Rome","Spread through the empire and became the official religion in 380 CE"],["Edict of Milan (313 CE)","Declared tolerance for Christians"],["Roman law","Basis for many modern legal ideas, such as being innocent until proven guilty"],["Republic's check and balance","Two consuls could each veto the other"],["Citizenship","Rome gradually extended citizenship to many conquered peoples"],["Mare Nostrum","Latin for 'our sea', Rome's name for the Mediterranean"],["Visigoths","Germanic people who sacked Rome in 410 CE"],["Attila the Hun","Leader of the Huns who threatened Rome in the 400s"],["Romulus Augustulus","Last emperor of the Western Roman Empire"],["Roman calendar","Julius Caesar introduced the 365-day Julian calendar in 45 BCE"],["Month names","July is named for Julius Caesar and August for Augustus"],["Hadrian's Wall","Defensive wall in northern England built from 122 CE"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-enlightenment-revolutions","id":"world-enlightenment-revolutions","title":"The Enlightenment and Age of Revolutions","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["9-12"],"description":"Thinkers and revolutions that reshaped ideas about government and rights in the 1600s-1800s.","tags":["enlightenment","french revolution","locke","napoleon"],"frontLabel":"Term or person","backLabel":"What to know","cards":[["Enlightenment","18th-century movement that valued reason, science and individual rights"],["Age of Reason","Another name for the Enlightenment"],["John Locke","English thinker who argued people have natural rights to life, liberty and property"],["Natural rights","Rights people have simply by being human"],["Social contract","Idea that governments get their power from agreement with the governed"],["Thomas Hobbes","Wrote Leviathan; argued people need a strong ruler to avoid chaos"],["Montesquieu","French thinker who urged separation of powers"],["Separation of powers","Dividing government into branches so none has too much power"],["Voltaire","French writer who defended freedom of speech and religion"],["Jean-Jacques Rousseau","Wrote The Social Contract; said the general will of the people should rule"],["Mary Wollstonecraft","Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)"],["Adam Smith","Wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776), about markets and free trade"],["Isaac Newton","Described gravity and the laws of motion"],["Scientific Revolution","Era of new discoveries in astronomy, physics and medicine"],["Salons","Gatherings where thinkers discussed ideas"],["Encyclopedia","Diderot edited a French encyclopedia collecting knowledge"],["Enlightened despots","Rulers who followed some Enlightenment ideas but kept power, like Catherine the Great"],["Absolute monarchy","Government where a king or queen has total power"],["Louis XIV","French Sun King, ruled 1643-1715, built Versailles"],["Versailles","Grand palace outside Paris"],["English Civil War","1642-1651 conflict between king and Parliament"],["Glorious Revolution (1688)","Parliament replaced King James II with William and Mary peacefully"],["English Bill of Rights (1689)","Limited the monarch's power and protected Parliament's rights"],["Constitutional monarchy","King or queen with powers limited by law"],["American Revolution","Colonies won independence from Britain, 1775-1783"],["French Revolution","1789 uprising that ended the monarchy in France"],["Estates","Three social groups in France: clergy, nobles and everyone else"],["Third Estate","Common people, the vast majority of the French population"],["Estates-General","French assembly called in 1789 that began the Revolution"],["National Assembly","Group formed by the Third Estate in 1789"],["Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)","Crowd attacked a Paris prison, a symbol of royal power"],["Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen","1789 French document of rights"],["Liberty, equality, fraternity","Slogan of the French Revolution"],["Louis XVI","French king executed in 1793"],["Marie Antoinette","Queen of France, executed in 1793"],["Guillotine","Device used for executions during the Revolution"],["Reign of Terror (1793-94)","Period of extreme violence led by Robespierre"],["Robespierre","Revolutionary leader of the Terror, later executed"],["Napoleon Bonaparte","Army general who took power in France in 1799"],["Napoleonic Code","French legal code that spread ideas of legal equality"],["Emperor Napoleon","Crowned himself emperor in 1804"],["Battle of Waterloo (1815)","Napoleon's final defeat, in Belgium"],["Duke of Wellington","British commander who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo"],["Congress of Vienna (1815)","European leaders tried to restore order after Napoleon"],["Haitian Revolution","Enslaved people in Haiti rebelled and won independence in 1804"],["Toussaint Louverture","Leader of the Haitian Revolution"],["Haiti","First nation led by formerly enslaved people to win independence"],["Simon Bolivar","Led independence movements in northern South America"],["Jose de San Martin","Led liberation efforts in Argentina, Chile and Peru"],["Miguel Hidalgo","Priest who began Mexico's fight for independence in 1810"],["Mexican independence","Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821"],["Brazil's independence","Declared in 1822 by Pedro I"],["Revolutions of 1848","Uprisings across Europe demanding liberal reforms"],["Nationalism","Strong pride in one's nation"],["Unification of Italy","Italy became one kingdom in 1861 with leaders like Garibaldi and Cavour"],["Giuseppe Garibaldi","Italian general who led volunteers to take Sicily and Naples in 1860"],["Otto von Bismarck","Prussian statesman who united Germany in 1871"],["German Empire (1871)","Formed after the Franco-Prussian War"],["Liberalism","Belief in individual freedom and limited government"],["Conservatism","Belief in tradition and gradual change"],["Romanticism","Art and literature stressing feeling, nature and imagination"],["Abolition of slave trade","Britain banned the slave trade in 1807 and slavery in its empire in 1833"],["William Wilberforce","British politician who campaigned against the slave trade"],["Olympe de Gouges","French writer of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1791)"],["Tennis Court Oath","Third Estate members swore in 1789 not to separate until France had a constitution"],["Bourgeoisie","Middle class of merchants and professionals"],["Sans-culottes","Working-class Parisian revolutionaries"],["Directory","Five-man government that ruled France from 1795 to 1799"],["Metric system","Created in revolutionary France, based on tens"],["Catherine the Great","Russian empress (1762-1796) who corresponded with Voltaire"],["Frederick the Great","King of Prussia, supporter of the arts and reforms"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-explorers-age-of-exploration","id":"world-explorers-age-of-exploration","title":"Explorers and the Age of Exploration","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"Famous explorers, their voyages, routes and the effects of European exploration.","tags":["explorers","columbus","magellan","age of exploration"],"frontLabel":"Explorer or term","backLabel":"What to know","cards":[["Age of Exploration","Period from about 1400 to 1700 when Europeans sailed across oceans"],["Prince Henry the Navigator","Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages along Africa's coast"],["Bartolomeu Dias","First European to sail around Africa's southern tip, 1488"],["Vasco da Gama","Portuguese explorer who reached India by sea in 1498"],["Christopher Columbus","Italian sailor who crossed the Atlantic for Spain in 1492"],["Columbus's ships","The Nina, the Pinta and the Santa Maria"],["Isabella and Ferdinand","Spain's rulers who funded Columbus"],["San Salvador","Island in the Bahamas where Columbus landed in 1492"],["Columbian Exchange","Movement of plants, animals, people and diseases between the Americas and the Old World"],["Diseases in the Americas","Smallpox and other European illnesses killed many Native people"],["Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)","Spain and Portugal divided newly found lands"],["Amerigo Vespucci","Explorer whose first name gave America its name"],["John Cabot","Italian explorer sailing for England who reached North America in 1497"],["Vasco Nunez de Balboa","First European to see the Pacific from the Americas, 1513"],["Ferdinand Magellan","Led the first voyage to sail around the world, 1519-1522"],["Juan Sebastian Elcano","Completed Magellan's voyage after Magellan died in 1521"],["Strait of Magellan","Passage near South America's southern tip"],["Circumnavigation","Sailing all the way around the world"],["Hernan Cortes","Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519-1521"],["Francisco Pizarro","Spanish conquistador who defeated the Inca in the 1530s"],["Conquistador","Spanish soldier-explorer who conquered lands in the Americas"],["Ponce de Leon","Spanish explorer who explored Florida in 1513"],["Hernando de Soto","Spanish explorer who traveled through the southeastern US, 1539-1542"],["Francisco Coronado","Spanish explorer who searched the Southwest for cities of gold"],["Jacques Cartier","French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River in the 1530s"],["Samuel de Champlain","Founded Quebec in 1608"],["Henry Hudson","English explorer who explored the Hudson River in 1609 for the Dutch"],["Northwest Passage","Hoped-for water route through North America to Asia"],["La Salle","French explorer who traveled down the Mississippi in 1682"],["Marquette and Joliet","French explorers who traveled the upper Mississippi in 1673"],["Walter Raleigh","English courtier who sponsored the Roanoke colonies"],["Francis Drake","English sea captain who sailed around the world, 1577-1580"],["James Cook","English navigator who mapped Pacific coasts including New Zealand and Hawaii in the 1700s"],["Abel Tasman","Dutch explorer who sighted Tasmania and New Zealand in 1642"],["Zheng He","Chinese admiral whose fleets reached East Africa in the early 1400s"],["Ibn Battuta","Muslim scholar who traveled across Africa and Asia in the 1300s"],["Marco Polo","Venetian merchant who traveled in Asia in the late 1200s"],["Leif Erikson","Norse explorer who reached North America about 1000"],["Viking Vinland","Name the Norse gave to the land they reached in North America"],["L'Anse aux Meadows","Norse site in Newfoundland, proof of an early landing"],["Sacagawea","Shoshone woman who guided Lewis and Clark"],["Lewis and Clark","Explored the Louisiana Purchase and reached the Pacific, 1804-1806"],["Matthew Henson","Black explorer who traveled with Robert Peary to the Arctic"],["Robert Peary","Led expeditions toward the North Pole in the early 1900s"],["Roald Amundsen","Norwegian explorer, first to reach the South Pole, 1911"],["Ernest Shackleton","Led the Endurance expedition to Antarctica (1914-1917); all his men survived"],["Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay","First climbers confirmed to reach Mount Everest's summit, 1953"],["Jacques Cousteau","French ocean explorer who co-invented the Aqualung"],["Neil Armstrong","First person on the Moon, 1969"],["Sally Ride","First American woman in space, 1983"],["Mae Jemison","First Black woman in space, 1992"],["Valentina Tereshkova","First woman in space, 1963"],["Yuri Gagarin","First human in space, 1961"],["Gold, God and glory","Three motives often given for European exploration"],["Caravel","Small, fast Portuguese ship used for exploring"],["Astrolabe","Tool for finding latitude using the stars or Sun"],["Compass","Magnetic tool for finding direction"],["Latitude","Distance north or south of the equator"],["Longitude","Distance east or west of the prime meridian"],["Navigator","Person who plans a ship's course"],["Cartographer","Mapmaker"],["Mercator map","1569 map by Gerardus Mercator, useful for sailors"],["Spice Islands","Islands in today's Indonesia that produced cloves and nutmeg"],["Mercantilism","Idea that colonies exist to enrich the home country"],["Colony","Territory settled and controlled by another country"],["Transatlantic slave trade","Forced movement of millions of Africans to the Americas"],["Potatoes","Crop from the Americas that spread to Europe and fed millions"],["Tomatoes, corn and chocolate","Foods that came to Europe from the Americas"],["Horses in the Americas","Spanish brought horses, which changed life on the Plains"],["Wheat and sugar to the Americas","Old World crops carried across the Atlantic"],["Smallpox","Disease that devastated Native communities after contact"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-history-key-dates","id":"world-history-key-dates","title":"World History: Key Dates","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"When major events happened around the world, from ancient times to today.","tags":["dates","timeline","world history"],"frontLabel":"Event","backLabel":"Date","cards":[["Sumerian cities appear","About 3500 BCE"],["Egypt unified under the first pharaoh","About 3100 BCE"],["Great Pyramid of Giza built","About 2560 BCE"],["Code of Hammurabi","About 1754 BCE"],["Tutankhamun rules Egypt","About 1332-1323 BCE"],["First Olympic Games (traditional date)","776 BCE"],["Rome founded (traditional date)","753 BCE"],["Rome becomes a republic","509 BCE"],["Athens develops democracy","About 508 BCE"],["Battle of Marathon","490 BCE"],["Parthenon built","447-432 BCE"],["Alexander the Great's reign","336-323 BCE"],["Qin unifies China","221 BCE"],["Han Dynasty begins","206 BCE"],["Julius Caesar assassinated","44 BCE"],["Augustus becomes first Roman emperor","27 BCE"],["Vesuvius buries Pompeii","79 CE"],["Constantine legalizes Christianity","313 CE"],["Western Roman Empire ends","476 CE"],["Muhammad's migration to Medina (Hijra)","622 CE"],["Charlemagne crowned emperor","800 CE"],["Norman conquest of England","1066"],["First Crusade begins","1096"],["Magna Carta","1215"],["Genghis Khan unites the Mongols","1206"],["Mansa Musa's pilgrimage","1324"],["Black Death in Europe","1347-1351"],["Joan of Arc at Orleans","1429"],["Printing press in Europe","About 1450"],["Fall of Constantinople","1453"],["Columbus reaches the Americas","1492"],["Vasco da Gama reaches India","1498"],["Luther's 95 Theses","1517"],["Cortes conquers the Aztec","1521"],["Magellan's fleet circles the globe","1519-1522"],["Spanish Armada defeated","1588"],["Shakespeare's life","1564-1616"],["Taj Mahal begun","1632"],["Newton's Principia","1687"],["Glorious Revolution","1688"],["American Revolution","1775-1783"],["French Revolution begins","1789"],["Haiti becomes independent","1804"],["Napoleon defeated at Waterloo","1815"],["Latin American independence wars","1810s-1820s"],["Revolutions of 1848","1848"],["Meiji Restoration in Japan","1868"],["Unification of Germany","1871"],["Scramble for Africa begins","1880s"],["World War I","1914-1918"],["Russian Revolution","1917"],["Great Depression begins","1929"],["World War II","1939-1945"],["Indian independence","1947"],["People's Republic of China founded","1949"],["Sputnik launched","1957"],["Most African countries gain independence","1950s-1960s"],["Berlin Wall built","1961"],["Berlin Wall falls","1989"],["Soviet Union ends","1991"],["End of apartheid and Mandela elected","1994"],["Euro introduced","1999 (coins and notes in 2002)"],["First iPhone released","2007"],["Roman Republic ends","27 BCE"],["Inca Empire falls to Spain","1532-1533"],["Mongol Empire reaches China","1271 (Yuan Dynasty)"],["Ming Dynasty founded","1368"],["Mughal Empire founded","1526"],["Ottoman Empire founded","About 1299"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-industrial-revolution","id":"world-industrial-revolution","title":"The Industrial Revolution","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"Machines, factories, railroads, cities and reforms from the late 1700s through the 1800s.","tags":["industrial revolution","factories","steam","railroads"],"frontLabel":"Term or person","backLabel":"What to know","cards":[["Industrial Revolution","Shift from hand-made goods to machine production, starting in Britain in the 1700s"],["Why Britain first","Coal and iron, capital, colonies, rivers and stable government"],["Textile industry","Cloth-making; the first big factory industry"],["Spinning jenny","James Hargreaves's machine (about 1764) that spun many threads at once"],["Water frame","Richard Arkwright's water-powered spinning machine"],["Power loom","Edmund Cartwright's machine for weaving cloth"],["Cotton gin","Eli Whitney's 1793 invention for cleaning cotton"],["Flying shuttle","John Kay's 1733 loom improvement"],["Steam engine","Machine that turns heat into motion; James Watt improved it in the 1770s"],["James Watt","Scottish engineer who made the steam engine efficient"],["Thomas Newcomen","Built an early steam engine for pumping water from mines"],["Coal","Main fuel of the Industrial Revolution"],["Iron and steel","Key materials for machines, rails and bridges"],["Abraham Darby","Found a way to smelt iron using coke"],["Bessemer process","Method for cheap, large-scale steel production from the 1850s"],["Factory system","Workers gather in one place to use powered machines"],["Division of labor","Splitting a job into small steps, each done by a different worker"],["Interchangeable parts","Standard-sized pieces that fit any copy of a product"],["Mass production","Making goods in large numbers"],["Assembly line","Workers add parts as a product moves down a line"],["Locomotive","Self-moving steam engine for pulling trains"],["George Stephenson","British engineer who built early railways and the Rocket locomotive"],["Railroad","Rail line for trains; sped trade and travel"],["Steamboat","Robert Fulton made steamboats practical in 1807"],["Canals","Man-made waterways for moving goods"],["Telegraph","Samuel Morse's electrical message system, 1840s"],["Telephone","Alexander Graham Bell's 1876 patent"],["Electric light","Thomas Edison developed a practical bulb in 1879"],["Alternating current","Electric current type championed by George Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla"],["Michael Faraday","Scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction"],["Second Industrial Revolution","Late 1800s boom in steel, oil, chemicals and electricity"],["Urbanization","Movement of people from farms to cities"],["Slums","Crowded poor neighborhoods"],["Working conditions","Factory work meant long hours, low pay and danger"],["Child labor","Children worked in factories and mines"],["Factory Acts","British laws limiting working hours, especially for children"],["Trade union","Group of workers organizing for better conditions"],["Luddites","Workers who destroyed machines that threatened their jobs, 1811-1816"],["Capitalism","Economic system of private ownership and profit"],["Socialism","Idea that workers or the community should own the means of production"],["Karl Marx","Wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) with Friedrich Engels"],["Charles Dickens","Novelist who wrote about poverty in Victorian England"],["Middle class","Growing group of factory owners, managers and professionals"],["Working class","People who work in factories and mills"],["Public health","Cities built sewers and clean water supplies after outbreaks like cholera"],["John Snow","Physician who traced a London cholera outbreak in 1854 to a water pump"],["Edward Jenner","Created the smallpox vaccine in 1796"],["Louis Pasteur","Showed that germs cause disease and developed vaccines"],["Florence Nightingale","Nurse who improved hospital hygiene in the Crimean War"],["Agricultural Revolution","Better farming methods that freed workers for factories"],["Enclosure","Fencing in common land, which pushed many farmers off the land"],["Seed drill","Jethro Tull's machine for planting seeds in rows"],["Crop rotation","Changing crops each year to keep soil rich"],["Reaper","Cyrus McCormick's machine for harvesting grain (1830s)"],["Spread to America","Samuel Slater built a cotton mill in Rhode Island in 1790"],["Lowell mill girls","Young women who worked in Massachusetts textile mills"],["Industrial Japan","Japan rapidly industrialized after the Meiji Restoration of 1868"],["Imperialism","Strong nations taking control of other lands to get materials and markets"],["Raw materials","Natural resources like cotton, rubber and metal used to make goods"],["Great Exhibition (1851)","Showcase of industry held in London's Crystal Palace"],["Crystal Palace","Iron-and-glass building made for the Great Exhibition"],["Suez Canal (1869)","Canal across Egypt linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea"],["Transcontinental railroad","US railroad completed in 1869"],["Trans-Siberian Railway","Russian railroad begun in 1891 linking Moscow to the Pacific"],["Standard time","Railroads led to time zones, set in the US in 1883"],["Department store","New kind of large store that appeared in cities"],["Consumer goods","Products bought by ordinary people"],["Patent","Government grant giving an inventor sole rights to an invention"],["Telegraph cable","Transatlantic cable first worked in 1858 and was reliable by 1866"],["Oil","Drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859; later fueled engines"],["Internal combustion engine","Engine that burns fuel inside cylinders to power cars"],["Automobile","Karl Benz built an early practical car in 1885-86"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-inventions-timeline","id":"world-inventions-timeline","title":"Inventions Through Time","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"Who invented what, and roughly when, from the wheel to the World Wide Web.","tags":["inventions","timeline","inventors"],"frontLabel":"Invention","backLabel":"Who or when","cards":[["Fire control","Early humans used fire for warmth and cooking, hundreds of thousands of years ago"],["Wheel","Mesopotamia, about 3500 BCE"],["Writing","Sumer's cuneiform and Egypt's hieroglyphs, about 3200 BCE"],["Plow","Early farmers in Mesopotamia and Egypt"],["Bronze","Metal alloy of copper and tin, about 3300 BCE"],["Paper","China, improved by Cai Lun about 105 CE"],["Papyrus","Egyptian writing material from a river plant"],["Alphabet","Developed by Phoenician traders, about 1050 BCE"],["Coins","Lydia (in modern Turkey), about 600 BCE"],["Aqueduct","Romans perfected water-carrying bridges"],["Concrete","Romans widely used it in building"],["Compass","China, used for navigation by about 1100 CE"],["Gunpowder","China, about 900 CE"],["Woodblock printing","China, by the 600s-700s CE"],["Movable type","Bi Sheng in China (about 1040); Gutenberg in Europe (about 1450)"],["Eyeglasses","Italy, late 1200s"],["Mechanical clock","Europe, 1200s-1300s"],["Printing press","Johannes Gutenberg, about 1450"],["Telescope","Dutch lens makers, about 1608; Galileo improved it"],["Microscope","Dutch makers around 1590s; Leeuwenhoek used one to see microbes"],["Thermometer","Galileo and others in the early 1600s; Fahrenheit's mercury version in 1714"],["Barometer","Evangelista Torricelli, 1643"],["Steam engine","Newcomen 1712; Watt improved it in the 1770s"],["Lightning rod","Benjamin Franklin, 1752"],["Hot air balloon","Montgolfier brothers, 1783"],["Vaccine","Edward Jenner, smallpox vaccine, 1796"],["Battery","Alessandro Volta, 1800"],["Cotton gin","Eli Whitney, 1793"],["Steamboat","Robert Fulton, 1807"],["Locomotive","George Stephenson built practical steam locomotives in the 1810s-1820s"],["Photography","Daguerreotype process announced in 1839"],["Telegraph","Samuel Morse, 1830s-1840s"],["Sewing machine","Elias Howe, 1846, improved by Isaac Singer"],["Safety elevator","Elisha Otis, 1850s"],["Pasteurization","Louis Pasteur, 1860s"],["Dynamite","Alfred Nobel, 1867"],["Typewriter","Christopher Sholes, 1868"],["Telephone","Alexander Graham Bell, 1876"],["Phonograph","Thomas Edison, 1877"],["Light bulb","Thomas Edison and others, 1879"],["Automobile","Karl Benz, 1885-86"],["Pneumatic tire","John Boyd Dunlop, 1888"],["Motion pictures","Lumiere brothers, 1895"],["Radio","Guglielmo Marconi's wireless telegraph, 1890s"],["X-rays","Wilhelm Rontgen, 1895"],["Airplane","Wright brothers, 1903"],["Model T","Henry Ford, 1908"],["Zipper","Gideon Sundback improved it in 1913"],["Television","Philo Farnsworth demonstrated all-electronic TV in 1927"],["Penicillin","Alexander Fleming, 1928"],["Jet engine","Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain, 1930s"],["Helicopter","Igor Sikorsky's practical helicopter, 1939-1940"],["Computer (ENIAC)","First large general-purpose electronic computer, 1945"],["Transistor","Bell Labs, 1947"],["Microwave oven","Percy Spencer, 1945-47"],["Polio vaccine","Jonas Salk, 1955"],["Satellite","Sputnik 1, 1957"],["Integrated circuit","Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, late 1950s"],["Laser","Theodore Maiman built the first working laser in 1960"],["Moon landing","Apollo 11, 1969"],["ARPANET","Early network that led to the Internet, 1969"],["Email","Ray Tomlinson sent the first network email in 1971"],["Personal computer","Altair 8800 (1975); Apple II (1977)"],["Cell phone","Martin Cooper made the first handheld mobile phone call in 1973"],["Compact disc","Introduced in 1982"],["World Wide Web","Tim Berners-Lee, 1989-1991"],["Web browser","Mosaic in 1993 helped the Web take off"],["GPS","US satellite navigation system fully operational in the 1990s"],["Smartphone","Early models in the 1990s; iPhone in 2007"],["3D printing","Chuck Hull invented stereolithography in 1984"],["Inventor of the safety pin","Walter Hunt, 1849"],["Inventor of the Braille system","Louis Braille, 1820s"],["Inventor of the stethoscope","Rene Laennec, 1816"],["Inventor of the bifocal lens","Benjamin Franklin, around 1784"],["Inventor of the crayon","Binney & Smith began making Crayola crayons in 1903"],["Inventor of basketball","James Naismith, 1891"],["Inventor of the traffic light signal","Garrett Morgan patented an improved signal in 1923"],["Inventor of the Super Soaker","Lonnie Johnson, 1980s"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-islamic-golden-age","id":"world-islamic-golden-age","title":"Islamic Civilization and the Golden Age","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"The rise of Islam, the caliphates, and the science, math and art of the Islamic Golden Age.","tags":["islam","caliphate","baghdad","golden age"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Islam","Monotheistic religion that began in Arabia in the 600s CE"],["Muslim","A follower of Islam"],["Muhammad","Prophet of Islam, born in Mecca around 570 CE"],["Mecca","Holy city in Arabia where Muhammad was born; the Kaaba is there"],["Medina","City where Muhammad moved in 622 CE"],["Hijra","The 622 journey from Mecca to Medina; Year 1 of the Islamic calendar"],["Quran","Holy book of Islam"],["Allah","Arabic word for God"],["Five Pillars of Islam","Faith, prayer, charity, fasting and pilgrimage"],["Shahada","Statement of faith"],["Salat","Prayer five times a day"],["Zakat","Giving to people in need"],["Sawm","Fasting during the month of Ramadan"],["Hajj","Pilgrimage to Mecca, expected once in a lifetime if able"],["Ramadan","Ninth month of the Islamic calendar, a month of fasting"],["Eid al-Fitr","Festival marking the end of Ramadan"],["Mosque","Muslim house of worship"],["Minaret","Tower of a mosque from which the call to prayer is given"],["Caliph","Successor to Muhammad as the leader of the Muslim community"],["Caliphate","Government led by a caliph"],["Rashidun","The first four caliphs after Muhammad"],["Umayyad Caliphate","661-750; capital at Damascus"],["Abbasid Caliphate","750-1258; capital at Baghdad"],["Sunni and Shia","The two main branches of Islam, which differ over early leadership"],["Damascus","Umayyad capital in Syria"],["Baghdad","Founded in 762; the Abbasid capital and a center of learning"],["House of Wisdom","Library and research center in Baghdad"],["Harun al-Rashid","Famous Abbasid caliph, linked to Baghdad's glory"],["Al-Ma'mun","Caliph who supported translation and science"],["Translation movement","Scholars translated Greek, Persian and Indian works into Arabic"],["Al-Khwarizmi","Mathematician whose name gave us the word algorithm"],["Algebra","Name comes from al-jabr in al-Khwarizmi's book"],["Ibn al-Haytham","Pioneer of optics who explained how vision works"],["Al-Razi","Physician who wrote about measles and smallpox"],["Ibn Sina (Avicenna)","Physician whose Canon of Medicine was used for centuries"],["Canon of Medicine","Ibn Sina's encyclopedia of medicine"],["Al-Zahrawi","Surgeon in Spain who wrote about surgical tools"],["Hospital (bimaristan)","Public hospitals developed in Islamic cities"],["Al-Biruni","Scholar who studied astronomy, geography and many subjects"],["Astrolabe","Instrument used to find time and position of stars"],["Algorithm","Step-by-step process for solving a problem; from al-Khwarizmi's name"],["Arabic numerals","Digits we use today, passed on through Arab scholars from India"],["Al-Idrisi","Geographer who made a world map for a Norman king in 1154"],["Ibn Khaldun","Historian who wrote about the rise and fall of societies"],["Ibn Rushd (Averroes)","Philosopher in Spain who wrote about Aristotle"],["Rumi","Persian poet of the 1200s"],["One Thousand and One Nights","Collection of tales including Aladdin and Sinbad"],["Arabic calligraphy","Art of beautiful writing, important in Islamic art"],["Geometric patterns","Repeated shapes used to decorate buildings and tiles"],["Arabesque","Flowing, plant-like decorative pattern"],["Al-Andalus","Muslim-ruled parts of Spain, 711-1492"],["Cordoba","Capital of Al-Andalus with great libraries and a famous mosque"],["Great Mosque of Cordoba","Spain's grand mosque with red-and-white arches"],["Alhambra","Palace-fortress in Granada, Spain"],["Dome of the Rock","Shrine in Jerusalem finished in 691"],["Battle of Tours (732)","Frankish victory that halted a Muslim advance into France"],["Seljuk Turks","Turkic dynasty that ruled much of the Middle East in the 1000s"],["Ottoman Empire","Empire that lasted from about 1299 to 1922"],["Suleiman the Magnificent","Ottoman sultan in the 1500s"],["Mehmed II","Ottoman sultan who captured Constantinople in 1453"],["Istanbul","Name for Constantinople under the Ottomans"],["Safavid Empire","Persian empire (1501-1736) that made Shia Islam the state religion"],["Mughal Empire","Islamic empire in India from 1526"],["Mongol sack of Baghdad (1258)","Ended the Abbasid caliphate"],["Silk Road","Muslim merchants traveled along these trade routes"],["Spice trade","Muslim traders carried spices from Asia to Europe"],["Paper-making","Skills reached the Islamic world from China and spread to Europe"],["Sugar and cotton","Crops spread by Muslim farmers across the Mediterranean"],["Coffee","Became popular in the Islamic world by the 1400s"],["Waterwheel and irrigation","Islamic engineers improved ways to lift and spread water"],["Al-Jazari","Engineer who wrote a book of ingenious machines in 1206"],["Fatima al-Fihri","Founded al-Qarawiyyin in Fez in 859, often called the oldest degree-granting university"],["Mansa Musa","Muslim king of Mali famous for his pilgrimage in 1324"],["Ibn Battuta","Traveled about 75,000 miles across the Muslim world in the 1300s"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-medieval-europe","id":"world-medieval-europe","title":"Medieval Europe","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8","9-12"],"description":"Castles, knights, the Church, feudalism, the Crusades, the Black Death and more.","tags":["middle ages","feudalism","knights","crusades"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Middle Ages","Period in Europe from about 500 to 1500 CE; also called the medieval era"],["Medieval","Of the Middle Ages"],["Franks","Germanic people who built a powerful kingdom in what is now France"],["Charlemagne","King of the Franks crowned emperor in 800"],["Clovis","First Frankish king to unite the Franks"],["Vikings","Seafaring Norsemen who raided and traded from the late 700s"],["Longship","Narrow, fast Viking vessel"],["Leif Erikson","Norse explorer who reached North America around 1000"],["William the Conqueror","Duke of Normandy who won England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066"],["Battle of Hastings (1066)","Norman victory that began Norman rule of England"],["Domesday Book","Survey of English land ordered by William in 1086"],["Feudalism","System where lords gave land in exchange for loyalty and service"],["Lord","Landowner who held power over a territory"],["Vassal","Person who held land from a lord and promised service"],["Knight","Mounted soldier who served a lord"],["Chivalry","Knightly code of bravery, courtesy and honor"],["Squire","Young man training to become a knight"],["Page","Boy who started training for knighthood"],["Manor","Lord's estate with a village and farmland"],["Serf","Peasant bound to the land and to a lord"],["Peasant","Farm worker who made up most of the population"],["Three-field system","Rotating crops across three fields to keep soil healthy"],["Castle","Fortified home of a lord"],["Moat","Ditch, often water-filled, around a castle"],["Drawbridge","Bridge over a moat that could be raised"],["Keep","Strong central tower of a castle"],["Portcullis","Heavy gate lowered to block a castle entrance"],["Siege","Surrounding a castle or town to force surrender"],["Catapult","Machine that hurled stones at walls"],["Longbow","Powerful bow used by English archers"],["Armor","Protective metal covering"],["Roman Catholic Church","Dominant church in western Europe during the Middle Ages"],["Pope","Head of the Catholic Church"],["Monastery","Home of monks who prayed, worked and copied books"],["Monk","Man who lives a religious life in a monastery"],["Nun","Woman who lives a religious life in a convent"],["Illuminated manuscript","Hand-copied book decorated with gold and colors"],["Cathedral","Large and important church"],["Gothic architecture","Style with pointed arches, ribbed vaults and flying buttresses"],["Stained glass","Colored glass windows in churches"],["Guild","Association of craftsmen or merchants in a town"],["Apprentice","Young person learning a trade"],["Charter","Document granting rights to a town"],["Magna Carta (1215)","English charter limiting the king's power; signed by King John"],["King John","English king forced by barons to sign the Magna Carta"],["Parliament","English lawmaking body that grew from royal councils"],["Eleanor of Aquitaine","Powerful queen of France and later England"],["Crusades","Religious wars from 1095 to 1291, mainly to control Jerusalem"],["Pope Urban II","Called the First Crusade in 1095"],["Saladin","Muslim leader who retook Jerusalem in 1187"],["Richard the Lionheart","English king who led the Third Crusade"],["Effects of the Crusades","Increased trade and exchange of ideas between Europe and the Middle East"],["Marco Polo's trip","Italian merchant who traveled to China in the late 1200s"],["Hanseatic League","Alliance of northern European trading cities"],["Black Death","Plague that killed perhaps a third of Europeans, 1347-1351"],["Bubonic plague","Disease spread by fleas on rats, cause of the Black Death"],["Effects of the Black Death","Labor shortages gave surviving workers more bargaining power"],["Hundred Years' War","Long conflict between England and France, 1337-1453"],["Joan of Arc","French teenage heroine who helped lift the siege of Orleans in 1429"],["Battle of Agincourt (1415)","English longbowmen won against a larger French army"],["Peasants' Revolt (1381)","English uprising against taxes"],["Reconquista","Centuries-long effort by Christian kingdoms to retake Iberia"],["Byzantine Empire","Eastern Roman Empire, ruled from Constantinople"],["Justinian","Byzantine emperor who built Hagia Sophia and organized Roman law"],["Hagia Sophia","Great church in Constantinople completed in 537"],["Fall of Constantinople (1453)","Ottoman Turks captured the city, ending the Byzantine Empire"],["Gutenberg","Introduced the printing press with movable type in Europe around 1450"],["Dante","Italian poet who wrote the Divine Comedy"],["Chaucer","English author of The Canterbury Tales"],["Thomas Aquinas","Scholar who tried to combine faith and reason"],["University","Medieval schools in Bologna, Paris and Oxford grew into universities"],["Tournament","Contest where knights showed skill"],["Heraldry","System of coats of arms to identify families and knights"],["Jester","Entertainer at court, often wearing bright clothes"],["Troubadour","Poet-musician in southern France"],["Dark Ages","Old name for the early Middle Ages; many historians now avoid it"],["Holy Roman Empire","Union of German and central European lands under an emperor"],["Otto I","King crowned emperor in 962, starting the Holy Roman Empire"],["Wat Tyler","Leader of the Peasants' Revolt"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-mesopotamia","id":"world-mesopotamia","title":"Ancient Mesopotamia","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["3-5","6-8"],"description":"The land between the rivers: Sumer, Babylon, Assyria and their inventions.","tags":["mesopotamia","sumer","babylon","cuneiform"],"frontLabel":"Term","backLabel":"Meaning","cards":[["Mesopotamia","Greek for 'between the rivers'; the land between the Tigris and Euphrates"],["Tigris and Euphrates","The two rivers that watered Mesopotamia"],["Fertile Crescent","Curved area of fertile land from the Nile through Mesopotamia"],["Sumer","Southern Mesopotamia, home of some of the first cities"],["Sumerians","People who built the first known cities and invented writing"],["Uruk","One of the world's first great cities"],["Ur","Sumerian city with a large ziggurat"],["City-state","A city and surrounding land with its own government"],["Ziggurat","Stepped temple tower of Mesopotamian cities"],["Cuneiform","Wedge-shaped writing pressed into clay"],["Stylus","Reed pen used to press marks into wet clay"],["Clay tablet","Slab of clay used for writing"],["Scribe","Person trained to write and keep records"],["Epic of Gilgamesh","One of the oldest known stories, about a king and his friend Enkidu"],["Gilgamesh","Legendary king of Uruk in the oldest epic"],["Irrigation","Canals carrying river water to fields"],["Surplus","Extra food beyond what people need"],["Barley","Main grain grown in Mesopotamia"],["Wheel","Invented in Mesopotamia about 3500 BCE"],["Plow","Farm tool used to turn the soil, early versions pulled by oxen"],["Sailboat","Used on the rivers for trade"],["Sexagesimal system","Base-60 counting that gave us 60 minutes and 360 degrees"],["Lunar calendar","Calendar based on the Moon's cycles"],["Sargon of Akkad","Built the first known empire about 2300 BCE"],["Akkadian Empire","Empire created by Sargon, joining many city-states"],["Hammurabi","Babylonian king famous for his written laws"],["Code of Hammurabi","One of the earliest written law codes, about 1754 BCE"],["Babylon","Major city on the Euphrates; capital of Hammurabi's kingdom"],["Hanging Gardens of Babylon","Famed gardens, thought to be one of the Seven Wonders"],["Nebuchadnezzar II","Babylonian king who rebuilt Babylon around 600 BCE"],["Ishtar Gate","Blue glazed brick gate of Babylon"],["Assyrians","Fierce warriors from northern Mesopotamia who built a large empire"],["Nineveh","Assyrian capital with a great library"],["Ashurbanipal","Assyrian king who collected thousands of tablets in a library"],["Persians","Conquered Babylon in 539 BCE under Cyrus the Great"],["Cyrus the Great","Persian king who took Babylon"],["Epic","A long story about heroes"],["Polytheism","Belief in many gods"],["Temple","Building for worship, also a center of business in Sumer"],["Priest","Religious leader who served the gods"],["Patron god","God believed to protect a particular city"],["Enlil","Sumerian god of air and storms"],["Inanna","Sumerian goddess of love and war, later Ishtar"],["Marduk","Chief god of Babylon"],["Mud brick","Common building material"],["Dynasty","Rulers from one family"],["Empire","Many lands ruled by one government"],["Tribute","Payment from conquered people to their rulers"],["Trade","Mesopotamians traded grain and cloth for metal and stone from far away"],["Silver shekel","Weight of silver used as money"],["Contract","Written agreement; many were recorded on tablets"],["Law code","A written set of laws"],["Eye for an eye","Hammurabi's principle of matching punishments to harm, with different rules by class"],["Social classes","Kings and priests, then wealthy people, then commoners, then slaves"],["Enheduanna","Priestess of Ur and the first author known by name"],["Cylinder seal","Carved stone roller that pressed a design in clay to mark ownership"],["Royal Standard of Ur","Decorated box found in a Sumerian royal tomb"],["Lyre","Stringed instrument found in Sumerian tombs"],["Hittites","People of Anatolia who fought Babylon and Egypt"],["Chaldeans","Also called Neo-Babylonians; rebuilt Babylon after Assyria fell"],["Sumerian King List","Ancient list of rulers, mixing history and legend"],["Tell","A mound formed by ruins of ancient settlements built on each other"],["Modern Iraq","Most of ancient Mesopotamia lies in present-day Iraq"],["Medicine","Babylonian doctors wrote lists of illnesses and cures on tablets"],["Astronomy","Babylonians kept careful records of stars and planets"],["Plimpton 322","Clay tablet showing advanced Babylonian math"],["Mathematics","Babylonians solved problems with fractions, squares and early algebra"],["Library","Assyrian kings gathered tablets to preserve knowledge"],["Victory stele","Carved stone slab recording a ruler's win"],["Standard of weights","Merchants used set weights to trade fairly"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-renaissance-reformation","id":"world-renaissance-reformation","title":"The Renaissance and Reformation","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"Rebirth of art and learning in Europe, the printing press and the Protestant Reformation.","tags":["renaissance","da vinci","reformation","printing press"],"frontLabel":"Term or person","backLabel":"What to know","cards":[["Renaissance","French for 'rebirth'; era of new interest in art and learning in Europe, about 1300-1600"],["Where it began","Italy, in rich trading city-states like Florence"],["Florence","Italian city where the Renaissance flowered"],["Medici family","Rich Florence bankers who paid for many artists"],["Lorenzo de' Medici","Florentine ruler called the Magnificent, patron of artists"],["Patron","Person who gives money to support an artist"],["Humanism","Focus on human abilities and the study of classical texts"],["Petrarch","Italian scholar called the father of humanism"],["Classical learning","Study of ancient Greece and Rome"],["Leonardo da Vinci","Painter, inventor and scientist who painted the Mona Lisa"],["Mona Lisa","Famous portrait by Leonardo, now in the Louvre"],["The Last Supper","Leonardo's wall painting in Milan"],["Michelangelo","Artist who sculpted David and painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling"],["David (statue)","Michelangelo's marble sculpture finished in 1504"],["Sistine Chapel","Chapel in the Vatican with Michelangelo's ceiling paintings"],["Raphael","Painter known for harmony, including The School of Athens"],["Botticelli","Painter of The Birth of Venus"],["Donatello","Sculptor who revived lifelike statues"],["Brunelleschi","Architect who built the dome of Florence Cathedral"],["Perspective","Technique that makes flat paintings look three-dimensional"],["Realism","Showing people and nature as they look"],["Fresco","Painting on wet plaster"],["Sfumato","Soft blending of tones used by Leonardo"],["Artemisia Gentileschi","Early Baroque painter, one of the first women to gain fame in Europe"],["Sofonisba Anguissola","Italian portrait painter who became a court painter in Spain"],["Northern Renaissance","Movement in northern Europe including Flanders and Germany"],["Jan van Eyck","Flemish painter who used oil paints in detailed scenes"],["Albrecht Durer","German artist famous for woodcuts and engravings"],["Pieter Bruegel","Flemish painter of village life"],["Johannes Gutenberg","Introduced movable-type printing in Europe around 1450"],["Printing press","Machine that made books cheaper and spread ideas fast"],["Gutenberg Bible","First major book printed with movable type in Europe"],["Literacy","More people learned to read once books were cheaper"],["William Shakespeare","English playwright, 1564-1616"],["Hamlet","A Shakespeare tragedy about a Danish prince"],["Globe Theatre","London playhouse where many Shakespeare plays were staged"],["Miguel de Cervantes","Spanish author of Don Quixote"],["Machiavelli","Italian writer of The Prince, about power"],["Thomas More","English writer of Utopia"],["Erasmus","Dutch scholar who urged church reform and good education"],["Copernicus","Proposed in 1543 that Earth moves around the Sun"],["Galileo","Used a telescope to observe moons of Jupiter and supported the Sun-centered view"],["Johannes Kepler","Described planets' elliptical orbits"],["Vesalius","Anatomist who wrote an accurate book on the human body in 1543"],["Scientific Revolution","Era when new ways of studying nature using observation and experiments grew"],["Reformation","16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church, leading to Protestant churches"],["Martin Luther","German monk who began the Reformation in 1517"],["95 Theses","Luther's list of complaints about church practices, 1517"],["Indulgence","Church-granted forgiveness of penalties for sin, which Luther criticized"],["Protestant","Christians who left the Catholic Church in the Reformation"],["Lutheranism","Church that followed Luther's teachings"],["John Calvin","French reformer who worked in Geneva"],["Henry VIII","English king who broke with Rome and formed the Church of England"],["Church of England","Created in the 1530s with the king as its head"],["Elizabeth I","English queen from 1558 to 1603; her era saw the defeat of the Spanish Armada"],["Spanish Armada (1588)","Failed Spanish invasion fleet defeated by England"],["Counter-Reformation","Catholic Church's reforms in response to the Protestant movement"],["Council of Trent","Church meeting (1545-1563) that set out Catholic reforms"],["Jesuits","Catholic order founded by Ignatius of Loyola, known for education"],["Peace of Augsburg (1555)","Let German princes choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their lands"],["Thirty Years' War","1618-1648 conflict in Europe, partly over religion"],["Peace of Westphalia (1648)","Ended the Thirty Years' War"],["Vernacular","Everyday language of a region; Luther translated the Bible into German"],["Secular","Not tied to religion"],["Banking","Renaissance banks in Italy helped trade and travel"],["Merchant class","Business people who gained wealth and influence"],["City-state","City and nearby land with its own rule, as in Italy"],["Venice","Wealthy trading city built on islands"],["Chaucer vs Dante","Dante wrote in Italian; Chaucer in English, helping vernacular writing"],["Medici Bank","Led the way in Renaissance banking"],["Cathedral of Florence","Topped by Brunelleschi's dome"],["Vitruvian Man","Leonardo's drawing of the ideal proportions of a man"],["Anatomy","Study of the body; artists studied it to paint lifelike figures"],["Elizabethan Age","Period of Queen Elizabeth I when English arts flourished"]]},{"source":"https://peabody.kids/flashcards/world-wars-global-overview","id":"world-wars-global-overview","title":"The World Wars: A Global View","category":"history","subject":"World History","levels":["6-8","9-12"],"description":"Causes, sides, major events and results of World War I and World War II around the world.","tags":["world war i","world war ii","global","treaty of versailles"],"frontLabel":"Term or event","backLabel":"What to know","cards":[["Causes of WWI","Militarism, alliances, imperialism and nationalism (MAIN)"],["Militarism","Building up armies and weapons"],["Alliance system","Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) versus Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)"],["Assassination at Sarajevo","June 28, 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand was killed, setting off the war"],["July Crisis","Weeks of diplomacy and ultimatums that led to war in 1914"],["Schlieffen Plan","German plan to defeat France quickly before turning to Russia"],["Western Front","Line of trenches across France and Belgium"],["Eastern Front","Fighting between Germany/Austria and Russia"],["Battle of the Marne (1914)","Allied victory that stopped the German advance on Paris"],["Battle of Verdun (1916)","Long, costly battle between France and Germany"],["Battle of the Somme (1916)","British offensive with enormous casualties"],["Gallipoli (1915)","Failed Allied attack on the Ottoman Empire's coast"],["Machine gun","Weapon that made attacks deadly for soldiers crossing open ground"],["Poison gas","Chemical weapon first widely used in WWI; later banned"],["Tank","Armored vehicle first used by Britain in 1916"],["Airplane in WWI","Used first for scouting, then for fighting"],["U-boat","German submarine"],["Russian Revolution (1917)","Russia's tsar fell, and the Bolsheviks under Lenin took power"],["Vladimir Lenin","Bolshevik leader who founded the Soviet state"],["Nicholas II","Last tsar of Russia"],["Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)","Russia left the war and gave up land"],["Armistice Day","November 11, 1918, when fighting stopped on the Western Front"],["Treaty of Versailles (1919)","Peace treaty that blamed Germany and made it pay reparations"],["Reparations","Payments for war damages"],["War guilt clause","Treaty article that made Germany accept blame for the war"],["League of Nations","Organization to keep peace, set up in 1920"],["Collapse of empires","The Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German and Russian empires ended after WWI"],["Great Depression","Worldwide economic crisis in the 1930s that helped extremists rise"],["Fascism","Government by a dictator with strong nationalism and no free opposition"],["Benito Mussolini","Fascist dictator of Italy from 1922"],["Nazi Party","German party led by Adolf Hitler"],["Hitler's rise (1933)","Hitler became chancellor of Germany in January 1933"],["Appeasement","Giving in to demands to avoid war, as at Munich in 1938"],["Munich Agreement (1938)","Britain and France let Germany take part of Czechoslovakia"],["Invasion of Poland (Sept. 1, 1939)","Start of World War II in Europe"],["Blitzkrieg","German 'lightning war' using tanks, planes and fast movement"],["Fall of France (1940)","Germany took France in six weeks"],["Dunkirk (1940)","Evacuation of over 300,000 Allied troops from France"],["Battle of Britain (1940)","Royal Air Force defeated German air attacks"],["The Blitz","German bombing of British cities in 1940-41"],["Operation Barbarossa (1941)","Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union"],["Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43)","Soviet victory that turned the tide on the Eastern Front"],["El Alamein (1942)","British victory in Egypt against German-Italian forces"],["Pearl Harbor","Japan's attack on the US on December 7, 1941"],["Japanese expansion","Japan invaded China in the 1930s and spread across Asia in 1941-42"],["Nanjing (Nanking) 1937","Japan captured the Chinese capital after a hard battle; many civilians suffered"],["Battle of Midway (1942)","US Navy victory that weakened Japan's carriers"],["Holocaust","Nazi murder of six million Jews and millions of others"],["Resistance movements","Secret groups that opposed Nazi occupation"],["Kindertransport","Rescue program that took thousands of Jewish children from Germany to Britain"],["Righteous Among the Nations","Honor for non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews"],["Raoul Wallenberg","Swedish diplomat who saved thousands of Hungarian Jews"],["Oskar Schindler","German businessman who saved over a thousand Jewish workers"],["D-Day (June 6, 1944)","Allied invasion of Normandy"],["Liberation of Paris (Aug. 1944)","Allied forces freed the French capital"],["Yalta Conference","Allied leaders planned the post-war world"],["Potsdam Conference (1945)","Allied leaders met in Germany after Germany's surrender"],["V-E Day","May 8, 1945, victory in Europe"],["Hiroshima and Nagasaki","Atomic bombs dropped in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender"],["V-J Day","Japan's surrender announced August 15, 1945; signed September 2"],["Total deaths","WWII killed an estimated 70 to 85 million people"],["Nuremberg Trials","International court trials of Nazi leaders for war crimes"],["United Nations","Founded in 1945 to maintain peace"],["Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)","UN statement of basic rights for all people"],["Decolonization","After WWII, many colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence"],["Cold War begins","The US and USSR became rivals after the war"],["Marshall Plan","US aid to rebuild Western Europe"],["Allied Powers","Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the US and China"],["Axis Powers","Germany, Italy and Japan"],["Division of Germany","After WWII, Germany was divided into East and West"],["Occupation of Japan","US-led occupation, 1945-1952, helped Japan write a new constitution"],["Chinese Civil War","Fighting between Nationalists and Communists, resumed after WWII; Communists won in 1949"],["Indian Army in WWII","Over 2.5 million Indian volunteers served"],["Navajo Code Talkers","Used their language to send secret Pacific messages"],["Anne Frank's diary","Diary of a Jewish girl hiding in Amsterdam from 1942 to 1944"]]}]