#separator:tab #html:false #tags column:4 Benjamin Franklin Lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, and a public library american-inventors-and-innovators Eli Whitney Cotton gin (1793) and ideas about interchangeable parts american-inventors-and-innovators Robert Fulton Made steamboats practical, starting with the Clermont in 1807 american-inventors-and-innovators Samuel Morse Telegraph and Morse code, 1830s-1840s american-inventors-and-innovators Cyrus McCormick Mechanical reaper for harvesting grain american-inventors-and-innovators John Deere Steel plow for breaking prairie soil american-inventors-and-innovators Elias Howe Sewing machine with a lockstitch, 1846 american-inventors-and-innovators Isaac Singer Improved and sold sewing machines widely american-inventors-and-innovators Elisha Otis Safety elevator, shown in 1854 american-inventors-and-innovators Charles Goodyear Vulcanized rubber american-inventors-and-innovators Samuel Colt Revolver and mass production methods american-inventors-and-innovators Alexander Graham Bell Telephone, patented in 1876 american-inventors-and-innovators Thomas Edison Phonograph, practical light bulb and research laboratories american-inventors-and-innovators Nikola Tesla Worked on alternating current electric systems american-inventors-and-innovators George Westinghouse Air brake for trains and AC power systems american-inventors-and-innovators Lewis Latimer Improved the carbon filament for light bulbs american-inventors-and-innovators Granville Woods Black inventor with many patents for railway and electrical devices american-inventors-and-innovators Elijah McCoy Invented lubricating devices for steam engines american-inventors-and-innovators Madam C. J. Walker Built a hair care business and became a self-made millionaire american-inventors-and-innovators George Washington Carver Scientist who promoted peanuts and crop rotation american-inventors-and-innovators Booker T. Washington Founded Tuskegee Institute american-inventors-and-innovators Wright brothers Made the first powered airplane flight in 1903 at Kitty Hawk american-inventors-and-innovators Henry Ford Model T and the moving assembly line american-inventors-and-innovators George Eastman Simple Kodak cameras and roll film american-inventors-and-innovators Garrett Morgan Improved traffic signal and a safety hood american-inventors-and-innovators Charles Drew Developed blood banking methods american-inventors-and-innovators Percy Julian Chemist who made medicines from plants american-inventors-and-innovators Hedy Lamarr Actress who co-invented a frequency-hopping idea used later in wireless tech american-inventors-and-innovators Grace Hopper Helped create early programming languages american-inventors-and-innovators Steve Jobs Co-founder of Apple; helped popularize personal computers american-inventors-and-innovators Bill Gates Co-founder of Microsoft american-inventors-and-innovators Jonas Salk Developed a polio vaccine, 1955 american-inventors-and-innovators Albert Sabin Developed an oral polio vaccine american-inventors-and-innovators Robert Goddard Launched the first liquid-fueled rocket in 1926 american-inventors-and-innovators Philo Farnsworth Demonstrated all-electronic television in 1927 american-inventors-and-innovators Lee de Forest Invented the audion vacuum tube, important for radio american-inventors-and-innovators Mary Anderson Invented the windshield wiper in 1903 american-inventors-and-innovators Josephine Cochrane Invented the dishwasher in 1886 american-inventors-and-innovators Margaret Knight Invented the flat-bottomed paper bag machine american-inventors-and-innovators Stephanie Kwolek Invented Kevlar, a super strong fiber american-inventors-and-innovators Ruth Handler Created the Barbie doll american-inventors-and-innovators Earle Dickson Invented the Band-Aid for his wife in 1920 american-inventors-and-innovators Walter Hunt Invented the safety pin in 1849 american-inventors-and-innovators Ole Evinrude Invented the outboard motor american-inventors-and-innovators Willis Carrier Invented modern air conditioning american-inventors-and-innovators Clarence Birdseye Developed quick-freezing for foods american-inventors-and-innovators Gideon Sundback Improved the zipper american-inventors-and-innovators James Naismith Invented basketball in 1891 american-inventors-and-innovators Frederick McKinley Jones Invented refrigeration units for trucks american-inventors-and-innovators Katherine Johnson Calculated flight paths for NASA american-inventors-and-innovators Mark Dean Co-developed key IBM PC technologies american-inventors-and-innovators Jerry Lawson Helped develop the first cartridge-based video game console american-inventors-and-innovators Ralph Baer Called the father of video games for the Magnavox Odyssey american-inventors-and-innovators Wilbur Wright Older Wright brother who piloted first flights american-inventors-and-innovators Orville Wright Younger Wright brother, who piloted the first flight american-inventors-and-innovators Patent Government record giving an inventor exclusive rights to an invention american-inventors-and-innovators Patent Office Government office that registers patents; the first US patent law was in 1790 american-inventors-and-innovators Smithsonian Museums that preserve American inventions american-inventors-and-innovators Innovation A new idea, method or device american-inventors-and-innovators Prototype An early test version of an invention american-inventors-and-innovators Franklin's kite experiment 1752 test linking lightning to electricity american-inventors-and-innovators Telegraph line to California Completed in 1861 american-inventors-and-innovators First transcontinental telephone call Made in 1915 american-inventors-and-innovators Apollo program NASA program that landed astronauts on the Moon between 1969 and 1972 american-inventors-and-innovators Mesoamerica Region of Mexico and Central America where several great civilizations arose ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Olmec Earliest known Mesoamerican civilization, about 1200-400 BCE, known for giant stone heads ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Colossal heads Huge carved stone heads made by the Olmec ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Mother culture Nickname for the Olmec, who influenced later peoples ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Maize (corn) The most important crop in Mesoamerica ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Maya Civilization of southern Mexico, Guatemala and Belize, with city-states and writing ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Classic Maya The peak of Maya civilization, about 250-900 CE ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Tikal Large Maya city in Guatemala with tall temple pyramids ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Chichen Itza Maya city in Yucatan with the pyramid El Castillo ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Palenque Maya city in southern Mexico known for its Temple of the Inscriptions ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Pakal the Great Long-ruling king of Palenque ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Maya glyphs Writing system combining pictures and sounds ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Maya calendar Used interlocking cycles including a 260-day count and a 365-day year ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Long Count Maya system for counting days from a starting date ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Maya zero Maya used a symbol for zero in their math ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Maya astronomy Observed Venus, the Sun and Moon carefully ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Popol Vuh K'iche' Maya sacred book with creation stories ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Cacao Maya and Aztec used cacao beans for chocolate drinks and as money ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Ball game Mesoamerican game with a rubber ball played in stone courts ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Maya collapse Many southern lowland cities were abandoned after about 800-900 CE ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Teotihuacan Huge city near Mexico City with the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, flourished 100-550 CE ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Toltec Culture whose capital, Tula, flourished after Teotihuacan ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Aztec (Mexica) People who founded Tenochtitlan around 1325 ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Tenochtitlan Aztec capital on an island in Lake Texcoco, now Mexico City ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Chinampas Floating garden plots the Aztec built in shallow lakes ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Causeway Raised road across water, used to reach Tenochtitlan ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Templo Mayor Great temple in the center of Tenochtitlan ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Moctezuma II Aztec ruler when the Spanish arrived in 1519 ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Hernan Cortes Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas La Malinche Nahua woman who served as Cortes's interpreter ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Triple Alliance Aztec league of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Tribute Goods demanded from conquered peoples ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Nahuatl Aztec language, still spoken by many today ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Tlaxcalans Neighbors of the Aztecs who allied with the Spanish ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Fall of Tenochtitlan (1521) Spanish and allies captured the city after a long siege and an outbreak of smallpox ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Quetzalcoatl Feathered serpent god ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Huitzilopochtli Aztec god of the sun and war ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Tlaloc Aztec god of rain ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Codex Folded book painted by Aztec or Maya scribes ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Inca Empire Largest empire in the Americas, in the Andes, peaked in the 1400s-1500s ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Cusco Inca capital in Peru ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Pachacuti Ruler who began the Inca's great expansion in the 1430s ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Sapa Inca Title of the Inca emperor ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Machu Picchu Inca mountain estate in Peru, built about 1450 ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Quipu Inca record-keeping device of knotted strings ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Inca road system Thousands of miles of roads across the Andes ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Chasqui Inca relay runners who carried messages ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Mit'a Inca labor service owed to the state ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Terrace farming Stepped fields on mountainsides in the Andes ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Potato Crop first domesticated in the Andes ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Llama Pack animal of the Andes ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Alpaca Animal raised for soft wool in the Andes ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Quechua Language of the Inca, still spoken by millions ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Atahualpa Last independent Inca emperor, captured by Pizarro in 1532 ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who defeated the Inca ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Inca bridges Rope suspension bridges woven from grass ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Norte Chico (Caral) One of the oldest civilizations in the Americas, in coastal Peru, about 3000 BCE ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Chavin Early Andean culture known for temple center Chavin de Huantar ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Nazca Peruvian culture famous for giant desert line drawings ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Nazca Lines Huge figures of animals and shapes etched into the desert ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Moche Peruvian culture known for pottery and gold work ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Tiwanaku Andean city near Lake Titicaca ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Lake Titicaca High-elevation lake on the Peru-Bolivia border ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Mound Builders Ancient peoples in what is now the US who built earthen mounds ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Cahokia Largest city north of Mexico before 1492, near St. Louis ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Ancestral Puebloans Southwestern builders of cliff dwellings ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Tainos Indigenous people of the Caribbean who met Columbus ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Land bridge theory Idea that early people crossed from Asia to the Americas over Beringia ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Beringia Land that once connected Siberia and Alaska ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Clovis points Stone spear tips found at sites across North America ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Domestication Mesoamericans bred corn from a wild grass called teosinte ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Turquoise and jade Highly valued stones in Mesoamerica ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Obsidian Volcanic glass used for sharp tools ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Sacrifice Religious offerings, including human offerings, were part of Aztec and Maya ritual ancient-civilizations-of-the-americas Code of Hammurabi (c. 1754 BCE) Babylonian law code carved on a stone pillar famous-historical-documents Cyrus Cylinder (539 BCE) Persian clay cylinder describing Cyrus's rule and respect for local customs famous-historical-documents Twelve Tables (c. 450 BCE) Rome's first written laws, displayed in the Forum famous-historical-documents Edicts of Ashoka (c. 250 BCE) Messages carved on pillars by the Maurya emperor about justice and compassion famous-historical-documents Rosetta Stone (196 BCE) Decree in three scripts that helped decode hieroglyphs famous-historical-documents Edict of Milan (313 CE) Roman proclamation of religious tolerance famous-historical-documents Justinian Code (529-534) Byzantine collection of Roman laws that shaped later legal systems famous-historical-documents Constitution of Medina (c. 622) Early agreement among communities in Medina famous-historical-documents Domesday Book (1086) English survey of land and property ordered by William the Conqueror famous-historical-documents Magna Carta (1215) English charter limiting the king's power and protecting rights famous-historical-documents Golden Bull (1222) Hungarian charter limiting royal power, similar to Magna Carta famous-historical-documents Gutenberg Bible (c. 1455) First major book printed in Europe with movable type famous-historical-documents 95 Theses (1517) Martin Luther's list of church criticisms famous-historical-documents Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Spain and Portugal divided new lands outside Europe famous-historical-documents Mayflower Compact (1620) Agreement by Pilgrims to govern themselves fairly famous-historical-documents Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639) One of the first written constitutions in the colonies famous-historical-documents Petition of Right (1628) English document limiting the king's power to tax and jail without cause famous-historical-documents English Bill of Rights (1689) Guaranteed Parliament's powers and individual rights famous-historical-documents Two Treatises of Government (1689) John Locke's work on natural rights and consent of the governed famous-historical-documents Common Sense (1776) Thomas Paine's pamphlet arguing for independence famous-historical-documents Declaration of Independence (1776) Announced the colonies' freedom and the ideas of equality and rights famous-historical-documents Articles of Confederation (1781) First US government plan famous-historical-documents Northwest Ordinance (1787) Set rules for new territories and banned slavery north of the Ohio famous-historical-documents US Constitution (1787) Framework of the US government famous-historical-documents Federalist Papers (1787-88) Essays defending the Constitution famous-historical-documents Bill of Rights (1791) First ten amendments protecting individual rights famous-historical-documents Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) French statement of rights and equality under the law famous-historical-documents A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) Mary Wollstonecraft's argument for women's education and equality famous-historical-documents Washington's Farewell Address (1796) Warned about political division and foreign entanglements famous-historical-documents Monroe Doctrine (1823) Warned Europe against new colonies in the Americas famous-historical-documents Declaration of Sentiments (1848) Seneca Falls document calling for women's equality famous-historical-documents Communist Manifesto (1848) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels's pamphlet about class struggle famous-historical-documents Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) Ended the Mexican-American War famous-historical-documents Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) Novel that increased opposition to slavery famous-historical-documents Emancipation Proclamation (1863) Lincoln's order freeing enslaved people in rebelling states famous-historical-documents Gettysburg Address (1863) Lincoln's short speech about equality and 'government of the people' famous-historical-documents 13th Amendment (1865) Ended slavery in the United States famous-historical-documents 14th Amendment (1868) Citizenship and equal protection for all persons born in the US famous-historical-documents 15th Amendment (1870) Gave Black men the right to vote famous-historical-documents 19th Amendment (1920) Gave women the right to vote famous-historical-documents Origin of Species (1859) Charles Darwin's book on evolution by natural selection famous-historical-documents Balfour Declaration (1917) British letter supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine famous-historical-documents Fourteen Points (1918) Woodrow Wilson's plan for post-WWI peace famous-historical-documents Treaty of Versailles (1919) Peace treaty ending WWI with Germany famous-historical-documents Atlantic Charter (1941) Churchill and Roosevelt's statement of war aims famous-historical-documents Four Freedoms (1941) FDR's speech on freedom of speech, worship, from want and from fear famous-historical-documents UN Charter (1945) Founding document of the United Nations famous-historical-documents Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) UN statement of rights for all people famous-historical-documents Brown v. Board of Education (1954) Supreme Court decision against school segregation famous-historical-documents Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963) Martin Luther King Jr.'s defense of nonviolent protest famous-historical-documents I Have a Dream (1963) King's speech at the March on Washington famous-historical-documents Civil Rights Act (1964) Outlawed segregation in public places and job discrimination famous-historical-documents Voting Rights Act (1965) Protected voting rights for Black citizens famous-historical-documents Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) Banned discrimination against people with disabilities famous-historical-documents Silent Spring (1962) Rachel Carson's book that sparked the environmental movement famous-historical-documents The Diary of a Young Girl Anne Frank's diary, published in 1947 famous-historical-documents Wealth of Nations (1776) Adam Smith's book on markets and trade famous-historical-documents Leviathan (1651) Thomas Hobbes's book on government and order famous-historical-documents The Social Contract (1762) Rousseau's book on the general will famous-historical-documents The Prince (1532) Machiavelli's guide to ruling, published after his death famous-historical-documents Dead Sea Scrolls Ancient manuscripts found in caves near the Dead Sea starting in 1947 famous-historical-documents Treaty of Paris (1783) Ended the American Revolution famous-historical-documents Treaty of Westphalia (1648) Ended the Thirty Years' War famous-historical-documents Great Law of Peace Haudenosaunee constitution, some influence on early American ideas is debated famous-historical-documents Cherokee Constitution (1827) Written constitution of the Cherokee Nation famous-historical-documents Sequoyah's syllabary Cherokee writing system created in the 1820s famous-historical-documents Indian Citizenship Act (1924) Granted citizenship to Native Americans born in the US famous-historical-documents Emancipation Manifesto (1861) Russian tsar Alexander II freed the serfs famous-historical-documents Meiji Constitution (1889) Japan's first modern constitution famous-historical-documents Constitution of India (1950) World's longest written national constitution famous-historical-documents Magna Carta's clause 39 No free person to be punished without lawful judgment, a root of due process famous-historical-documents Habeas corpus Principle that you cannot be held without legal charges; strengthened by England's 1679 Act famous-historical-documents Bill of Rights (1689) vs 1791 England's came first; the American one added rights to the US Constitution famous-historical-documents Homestead Act (1862) Offered free land to settlers who farmed it famous-historical-documents Pendleton Act (1883) Created merit-based jobs in the federal government famous-historical-documents Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) Law against monopolies famous-historical-documents Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) Athens defeated a Persian invasion in Greece famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) Small Greek force held a mountain pass against Persia famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) Greek fleet defeated the Persian navy famous-wars-and-battles Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) Sparta defeated Athens famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE) Alexander the Great defeated Persian king Darius III famous-wars-and-battles Punic Wars (264-146 BCE) Rome defeated Carthage in three wars famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) Hannibal's great victory over Rome famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Zama (202 BCE) Scipio defeated Hannibal famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Actium (31 BCE) Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Hastings (1066) William of Normandy won England famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Tours (732) Charles Martel stopped a Muslim army in France famous-wars-and-battles First Crusade (1096-1099) Christian knights captured Jerusalem famous-wars-and-battles Mongol conquests Genghis Khan and successors built the largest land empire in the 1200s famous-wars-and-battles Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) England and France fought; Joan of Arc rallied the French famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Agincourt (1415) English longbows beat French knights famous-wars-and-battles Fall of Constantinople (1453) Ottomans took the Byzantine capital famous-wars-and-battles Spanish Armada (1588) English defeated Spain's invasion fleet famous-wars-and-battles Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) Religious and political war in central Europe famous-wars-and-battles French and Indian War (1754-1763) Britain defeated France in North America famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Lexington and Concord (1775) First fights of the American Revolution famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Saratoga (1777) American victory that brought France into the war famous-wars-and-battles Siege of Yorktown (1781) Last major battle of the American Revolution famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Trafalgar (1805) British Admiral Nelson defeated the French and Spanish fleets famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Austerlitz (1805) Napoleon's greatest victory, over Russia and Austria famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Waterloo (1815) Napoleon's final defeat famous-wars-and-battles War of 1812 US versus Britain; ended in a stalemate in 1815 famous-wars-and-battles Battle of New Orleans (1815) Andrew Jackson defeated British troops famous-wars-and-battles Battle of the Alamo (1836) Texas defenders fell to Mexican forces famous-wars-and-battles Mexican-American War (1846-48) US won California and the Southwest famous-wars-and-battles Crimean War (1853-56) Britain, France and the Ottomans fought Russia; Florence Nightingale nursed there famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Fort Sumter (1861) First shots of the American Civil War famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Gettysburg (1863) Turning point of the Civil War in the East famous-wars-and-battles Siege of Vicksburg (1863) Union victory that took control of the Mississippi River famous-wars-and-battles Appomattox (1865) Lee's surrender to Grant famous-wars-and-battles Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) Prussia defeated France and united Germany famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) Lakota and Cheyenne defeated Custer's troops famous-wars-and-battles Spanish-American War (1898) US gained Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines famous-wars-and-battles Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) Japan defeated Russia famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Verdun (1916) Long battle between France and Germany in WWI famous-wars-and-battles Battle of the Somme (1916) British offensive in WWI with heavy losses famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Britain (1940) RAF stopped German air attacks famous-wars-and-battles Dunkirk evacuation (1940) Rescue of Allied troops from France by many boats famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43) Soviet victory on the Eastern Front famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Midway (1942) US Navy victory in the Pacific famous-wars-and-battles Battle of El Alamein (1942) British victory in North Africa famous-wars-and-battles D-Day (June 6, 1944) Allied landings in Normandy famous-wars-and-battles Battle of the Bulge (1944-45) Germany's last big offensive in the West famous-wars-and-battles Iwo Jima (1945) US Marines captured the island famous-wars-and-battles Korean War (1950-53) UN forces helped South Korea against North Korea famous-wars-and-battles Vietnam War (1955-75) Long conflict between North and South Vietnam; the US supported the South famous-wars-and-battles Six-Day War (1967) Israel and neighboring Arab states fought in June 1967 famous-wars-and-battles Gulf War (1991) Coalition forces freed Kuwait after Iraq's invasion famous-wars-and-battles Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) Fighting between Nationalists and Communists, which the Communists won famous-wars-and-battles Russian Civil War (1917-1922) Reds under the Bolsheviks defeated Whites famous-wars-and-battles American Civil War (1861-1865) Union defeated the Confederacy; slavery ended famous-wars-and-battles English Civil War (1642-1651) Parliament defeated the king, Charles I famous-wars-and-battles Wars of the Roses (1455-1487) English families York and Lancaster fought for the throne famous-wars-and-battles Boer War (1899-1902) Britain fought two Boer republics in South Africa famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Adwa (1896) Ethiopia defeated Italy famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Plassey (1757) British East India Company victory that brought it power in Bengal famous-wars-and-battles Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60) Britain defeated China, forcing trade concessions famous-wars-and-battles Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) Uprising against foreign influence in China famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Lepanto (1571) Christian fleet defeated the Ottoman navy at sea famous-wars-and-battles Siege of Vienna (1683) Defeat of Ottoman forces outside Vienna famous-wars-and-battles Seven Years' War (1756-1763) Global war involving Britain, France, Prussia and others famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Bunker Hill (1775) British won but lost many men famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Tippecanoe (1811) William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh's followers famous-wars-and-battles Battle of San Jacinto (1836) Texans defeated Mexican forces and won independence famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Antietam (1862) Bloodiest day of the Civil War famous-wars-and-battles Pearl Harbor (1941) Japanese surprise attack that brought the US into WWII famous-wars-and-battles Siege of Leningrad (1941-44) Long German siege of the Soviet city famous-wars-and-battles Battle of Okinawa (1945) Last major battle of the Pacific famous-wars-and-battles Fall of Saigon (1975) End of the Vietnam War famous-wars-and-battles Hatshepsut Egyptian woman who ruled as pharaoh and sent a great trading expedition to Punt famous-women-in-history Cleopatra VII Last active queen of Egypt, who ruled with great political skill famous-women-in-history Boudica Queen of the Iceni who led a revolt against Roman rule in Britain around 60 CE famous-women-in-history Wu Zetian Only woman to rule China as emperor, in the 600s-700s famous-women-in-history Hypatia Mathematician, astronomer and teacher in Alexandria around 400 CE famous-women-in-history Murasaki Shikibu Japanese author of The Tale of Genji, often called the first novel famous-women-in-history Eleanor of Aquitaine Powerful medieval queen of France and England famous-women-in-history Joan of Arc French teenager who helped lead the army to victories in 1429 famous-women-in-history Isabella I of Castile Spanish queen who funded Columbus's voyage famous-women-in-history Elizabeth I Queen of England, 1558-1603, during a time of great arts and exploration famous-women-in-history Queen Nzinga African queen who defended her lands in Angola against the Portuguese famous-women-in-history Pocahontas Powhatan woman connected to Jamestown in the early 1600s famous-women-in-history Sacagawea Shoshone guide for the Lewis and Clark expedition famous-women-in-history Catherine the Great Russian empress, 1762-1796, who expanded Russia famous-women-in-history Maria Theresa Austrian ruler in the 1700s famous-women-in-history Marie Curie Won Nobel Prizes in both physics and chemistry; discovered polonium and radium famous-women-in-history Florence Nightingale Founder of modern nursing, who improved hospital care famous-women-in-history Clara Barton Civil War nurse and founder of the American Red Cross famous-women-in-history Harriet Tubman Led many people to freedom on the Underground Railroad famous-women-in-history Sojourner Truth Former slave and powerful speaker for abolition and women's rights famous-women-in-history Susan B. Anthony Leader of the US women's suffrage movement famous-women-in-history Elizabeth Cady Stanton Organized the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 famous-women-in-history Harriet Beecher Stowe Author of Uncle Tom's Cabin famous-women-in-history Dorothea Dix Reformer who improved care for people with mental illness famous-women-in-history Emily Dickinson American poet of nearly 1,800 poems famous-women-in-history Jane Austen English novelist of Pride and Prejudice famous-women-in-history Mary Shelley Author of Frankenstein, written when she was 18-19 famous-women-in-history Ada Lovelace Wrote the first computer program idea for Babbage's engine in the 1840s famous-women-in-history Queen Victoria British queen from 1837 to 1901, giving her name to an era famous-women-in-history Queen Liliuokalani Last queen of Hawaii famous-women-in-history Emmeline Pankhurst British leader of the movement for women's right to vote famous-women-in-history Jane Addams Founded Hull House; won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 famous-women-in-history Ida B. Wells Journalist and activist who exposed lynching and fought for justice famous-women-in-history Helen Keller Deaf and blind author and activist who graduated from college famous-women-in-history Anne Sullivan Helen Keller's teacher famous-women-in-history Maria Montessori Italian educator who developed a child-centered teaching method famous-women-in-history Amelia Earhart First woman to fly solo across the Atlantic, in 1932 famous-women-in-history Bessie Coleman First Black woman to earn a pilot's license, in 1921 famous-women-in-history Eleanor Roosevelt First lady who worked for human rights famous-women-in-history Frances Perkins First woman in a US cabinet; helped create Social Security famous-women-in-history Mary McLeod Bethune Educator who founded a school that became Bethune-Cookman University famous-women-in-history Zora Neale Hurston Harlem Renaissance author of Their Eyes Were Watching God famous-women-in-history Frida Kahlo Mexican painter known for vivid self-portraits famous-women-in-history Georgia O'Keeffe American painter of flowers, desert scenes and skyscrapers famous-women-in-history Marian Anderson Opera singer who performed at the Lincoln Memorial in 1939 famous-women-in-history Rosa Parks Her 1955 bus protest helped spark the Montgomery Bus Boycott famous-women-in-history Anne Frank Wrote a diary while hiding from the Nazis famous-women-in-history Mother Teresa Nun who cared for the poor in Kolkata, India famous-women-in-history Indira Gandhi First woman prime minister of India famous-women-in-history Golda Meir Israel's first woman prime minister famous-women-in-history Margaret Thatcher Britain's first woman prime minister famous-women-in-history Wangari Maathai Kenyan environmentalist who won the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize famous-women-in-history Rachel Carson Author of Silent Spring (1962), which helped start the environmental movement famous-women-in-history Jane Goodall Studied chimpanzees in Tanzania for decades famous-women-in-history Dian Fossey Studied mountain gorillas in Rwanda famous-women-in-history Rosalind Franklin Her X-ray images helped reveal the structure of DNA famous-women-in-history Barbara McClintock Won a Nobel Prize for discovering jumping genes in corn famous-women-in-history Katherine Johnson NASA mathematician whose calculations helped astronauts reach orbit famous-women-in-history Dorothy Vaughan NASA mathematician and early computer programming leader famous-women-in-history Mary Jackson First Black woman engineer at NASA famous-women-in-history Grace Hopper Computer scientist who helped create early programming languages famous-women-in-history Sally Ride First American woman in space famous-women-in-history Valentina Tereshkova First woman to travel in space, in 1963 famous-women-in-history Mae Jemison First Black woman in space famous-women-in-history Ruth Bader Ginsburg Supreme Court justice who fought for equal treatment of women famous-women-in-history Sandra Day O'Connor First woman on the US Supreme Court famous-women-in-history Sonia Sotomayor First Latina on the Supreme Court famous-women-in-history Shirley Chisholm First Black woman elected to the US Congress, in 1968 famous-women-in-history Billie Jean King Tennis champion who fought for equal pay for women athletes famous-women-in-history Wilma Rudolph Overcame polio to win three Olympic gold medals in 1960 famous-women-in-history Malala Yousafzai Pakistani education activist, youngest Nobel Peace Prize winner famous-women-in-history Greta Thunberg Swedish climate activist who began protesting in 2018 famous-women-in-history Maya Angelou Poet and author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings famous-women-in-history Toni Morrison Novelist who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1993 famous-women-in-history Dolores Huerta Co-founded the United Farm Workers famous-women-in-history Fannie Lou Hamer Voting rights activist from Mississippi famous-women-in-history Temple Grandin Scientist who speaks about autism and designs humane animal facilities famous-women-in-history I ruled Egypt as a woman and sent ships to the land of Punt. Hatshepsut historical-figures-who-am-i I built the Great Pyramid at Giza. Khufu historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote one of the first known law codes in Babylon. Hammurabi historical-figures-who-am-i I taught by asking questions in Athens and was Plato's teacher. Socrates historical-figures-who-am-i I tutored Alexander the Great and wrote on logic, science and politics. Aristotle historical-figures-who-am-i I conquered Persia and spread Greek culture to India's border. Alexander the Great historical-figures-who-am-i I crossed the Alps with elephants to attack Rome. Hannibal historical-figures-who-am-i I led the Roman army in Gaul and was killed on the Ides of March. Julius Caesar historical-figures-who-am-i I became Rome's first emperor in 27 BCE. Augustus historical-figures-who-am-i I united China and began the Terra-cotta Army. Qin Shi Huang historical-figures-who-am-i I was a teacher in China who stressed respect, learning and family. Confucius historical-figures-who-am-i I was a prince in India who became the Buddha. Siddhartha Gautama historical-figures-who-am-i I ruled the Maurya Empire and turned to peace after a bloody war. Ashoka historical-figures-who-am-i I am the Prophet of Islam, born in Mecca. Muhammad historical-figures-who-am-i I was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800. Charlemagne historical-figures-who-am-i I won England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. William the Conqueror historical-figures-who-am-i I was a French teenager who led an army in 1429. Joan of Arc historical-figures-who-am-i I was a Mongol leader who built the largest land empire. Genghis Khan historical-figures-who-am-i I ruled Mali and made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. Mansa Musa historical-figures-who-am-i I traveled to China and wrote about it in the 1200s. Marco Polo historical-figures-who-am-i I painted the Mona Lisa and sketched flying machines. Leonardo da Vinci historical-figures-who-am-i I painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling and carved the David. Michelangelo historical-figures-who-am-i I printed Bibles with movable type in Europe around 1450. Johannes Gutenberg historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote 95 theses and began the Reformation. Martin Luther historical-figures-who-am-i I first sailed across the Atlantic for Spain in 1492. Christopher Columbus historical-figures-who-am-i My crew first sailed around the world, though I died on the way. Ferdinand Magellan historical-figures-who-am-i I conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521. Hernan Cortes historical-figures-who-am-i I was Queen of England during the Spanish Armada. Elizabeth I historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet. William Shakespeare historical-figures-who-am-i I used a telescope to see Jupiter's moons. Galileo Galilei historical-figures-who-am-i I explained gravity and the laws of motion. Isaac Newton historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Sun King of France. Louis XIV historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote that people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. John Locke historical-figures-who-am-i I led the Haitian Revolution. Toussaint Louverture historical-figures-who-am-i I crowned myself emperor of the French in 1804 and lost at Waterloo. Napoleon Bonaparte historical-figures-who-am-i I led the fight for independence in northern South America. Simon Bolivar historical-figures-who-am-i I was the British queen for over 63 years and an era is named after me. Queen Victoria historical-figures-who-am-i I founded modern nursing in the Crimean War. Florence Nightingale historical-figures-who-am-i I developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. Charles Darwin historical-figures-who-am-i I discovered radium and won two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie historical-figures-who-am-i I developed the theory of relativity. Albert Einstein historical-figures-who-am-i I led India to independence through nonviolence. Mahatma Gandhi historical-figures-who-am-i I led Britain through most of World War II. Winston Churchill historical-figures-who-am-i I was a South African leader jailed for 27 years who became president. Nelson Mandela historical-figures-who-am-i I led the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. Vladimir Lenin historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first president of the United States. George Washington historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson historical-figures-who-am-i I flew a kite in a storm and signed the Constitution. Benjamin Franklin historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote most of the Federalist Papers and later became the fourth president. James Madison historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first Treasury Secretary and later died in a duel. Alexander Hamilton historical-figures-who-am-i I guided Lewis and Clark. Sacagawea historical-figures-who-am-i I was the seventh president and fought at New Orleans. Andrew Jackson historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Shawnee leader who built a Native alliance. Tecumseh historical-figures-who-am-i I escaped slavery and led others on the Underground Railroad. Harriet Tubman historical-figures-who-am-i I escaped slavery, wrote an autobiography, and spoke against it. Frederick Douglass historical-figures-who-am-i I was president during the Civil War. Abraham Lincoln historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Confederate general who surrendered at Appomattox. Robert E. Lee historical-figures-who-am-i I led the Union armies and became president. Ulysses S. Grant historical-figures-who-am-i I founded the American Red Cross. Clara Barton historical-figures-who-am-i I organized the Seneca Falls Convention. Elizabeth Cady Stanton historical-figures-who-am-i I campaigned for women's right to vote and was arrested for voting in 1872. Susan B. Anthony historical-figures-who-am-i I invented the practical light bulb and the phonograph. Thomas Edison historical-figures-who-am-i I patented the telephone in 1876. Alexander Graham Bell historical-figures-who-am-i We built and flew the first airplane at Kitty Hawk. The Wright brothers historical-figures-who-am-i I led the Lakota at the Battle of Little Bighorn. Sitting Bull historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Nez Perce leader who said I would fight no more forever. Chief Joseph historical-figures-who-am-i I was the 26th president and a Rough Rider. Theodore Roosevelt historical-figures-who-am-i I founded Hull House in Chicago. Jane Addams historical-figures-who-am-i I was president during World War I. Woodrow Wilson historical-figures-who-am-i I flew solo across the Atlantic in 1927. Charles Lindbergh historical-figures-who-am-i I was elected four times and started the New Deal. Franklin D. Roosevelt historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first lady who worked for human rights. Eleanor Roosevelt historical-figures-who-am-i I became president when FDR died in 1945 and ordered the atomic bombs used. Harry S. Truman historical-figures-who-am-i I led Allied forces in Europe and became president in 1953. Dwight D. Eisenhower historical-figures-who-am-i I refused to give up my bus seat in Montgomery. Rosa Parks historical-figures-who-am-i I said 'I have a dream' at the March on Washington. Martin Luther King Jr. historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first Black player in modern major league baseball. Jackie Robinson historical-figures-who-am-i I integrated an elementary school in New Orleans at age six. Ruby Bridges historical-figures-who-am-i I was a young president, 35th, and faced the Cuban Missile Crisis. John F. Kennedy historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first person to walk on the Moon. Neil Armstrong historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first Black justice on the Supreme Court. Thurgood Marshall historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first woman on the Supreme Court. Sandra Day O'Connor historical-figures-who-am-i I organized farm workers with Dolores Huerta. Cesar Chavez historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first American woman in space. Sally Ride historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first Black president of the United States. Barack Obama historical-figures-who-am-i I was a Pakistani girl who became the youngest Nobel Peace Prize winner. Malala Yousafzai historical-figures-who-am-i I discovered that germs cause disease and invented a way to make milk safer. Louis Pasteur historical-figures-who-am-i I created the smallpox vaccine in 1796. Edward Jenner historical-figures-who-am-i I discovered penicillin. Alexander Fleming historical-figures-who-am-i I studied chimpanzees in Tanzania. Jane Goodall historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote Silent Spring about pesticides. Rachel Carson historical-figures-who-am-i I proposed that Earth moves around the Sun. Nicolaus Copernicus historical-figures-who-am-i I described the planets' elliptical orbits. Johannes Kepler historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote Pride and Prejudice. Jane Austen historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote A Christmas Carol and Oliver Twist. Charles Dickens historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. Mark Twain historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote the Gettysburg Address. Abraham Lincoln historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote the Communist Manifesto with Engels. Karl Marx historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote The Wealth of Nations. Adam Smith historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote Common Sense in 1776. Thomas Paine historical-figures-who-am-i I said 'Give me liberty, or give me death!' Patrick Henry historical-figures-who-am-i I rode at night to warn that British troops were coming. Paul Revere historical-figures-who-am-i I was a Patriot spy who regretted having only one life to give. Nathan Hale historical-figures-who-am-i I led the Continental Army at Valley Forge. George Washington historical-figures-who-am-i I helped Jefferson draft the Declaration and became the second president. John Adams historical-figures-who-am-i I asked my husband to 'remember the ladies.' Abigail Adams historical-figures-who-am-i I was a Wampanoag leader who made peace with the Pilgrims. Massasoit historical-figures-who-am-i I taught the Pilgrims to plant corn. Squanto historical-figures-who-am-i I was a captain at Jamestown who said those who do not work do not eat. John Smith historical-figures-who-am-i I founded Pennsylvania as a Quaker colony. William Penn historical-figures-who-am-i I founded Rhode Island and believed in religious freedom. Roger Williams historical-figures-who-am-i I created the Cherokee writing system. Sequoyah historical-figures-who-am-i I was a Cherokee leader who became principal chief in 1985. Wilma Mankiller historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Apache leader who resisted removal. Geronimo historical-figures-who-am-i I led the Texans to victory at San Jacinto. Sam Houston historical-figures-who-am-i I was Hawaii's last queen. Queen Liliuokalani historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin. Harriet Beecher Stowe historical-figures-who-am-i I founded the Tuskegee Institute. Booker T. Washington historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote about lynching and fought for justice as a journalist. Ida B. Wells historical-figures-who-am-i I founded the first Montessori school in Rome. Maria Montessori historical-figures-who-am-i I became deaf and blind as a baby and wrote books. Helen Keller historical-figures-who-am-i I disappeared in 1937 while flying around the world. Amelia Earhart historical-figures-who-am-i I won four gold medals at the 1936 Olympics. Jesse Owens historical-figures-who-am-i I wrote a diary while in hiding in Amsterdam. Anne Frank historical-figures-who-am-i I cared for the poor in Kolkata and won a Nobel Peace Prize. Mother Teresa historical-figures-who-am-i I was Britain's first woman prime minister. Margaret Thatcher historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Soviet leader who introduced glasnost. Mikhail Gorbachev historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Kenyan woman who started the Green Belt Movement. Wangari Maathai historical-figures-who-am-i I was a NASA mathematician who checked orbit calculations for John Glenn. Katherine Johnson historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first person in space. Yuri Gagarin historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first American to orbit Earth. John Glenn historical-figures-who-am-i I was the first woman in space. Valentina Tereshkova historical-figures-who-am-i I walked on the Moon with Neil Armstrong. Buzz Aldrin historical-figures-who-am-i I was the Ethiopian emperor who defeated Italy at Adwa. Menelik II historical-figures-who-am-i Indigenous peoples The first peoples of a land, here the Native peoples of the Americas native-american-nations-history Native nation A tribal community with its own government and culture native-american-nations-history Sovereignty The right of a nation to govern itself; many Native nations are sovereign within the US native-american-nations-history Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy of six nations in the Northeast: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Tuscarora native-american-nations-history Great Law of Peace Haudenosaunee constitution that joined the nations in a league native-american-nations-history Longhouse Long bark-covered home shared by Haudenosaunee families native-american-nations-history Three Sisters Corn, beans and squash, grown together by many Native farmers native-american-nations-history Wampanoag People of southeastern Massachusetts who met the Pilgrims native-american-nations-history Massasoit Wampanoag leader who made a peace with the Pilgrims in 1621 native-american-nations-history Squanto (Tisquantum) Patuxet man who helped the Pilgrims survive native-american-nations-history Powhatan Leader of a confederacy of Algonquian nations in Virginia native-american-nations-history Algonquian Large language family of eastern and central North America native-american-nations-history Wigwam Dome-shaped home covered with bark or mats, used by many Eastern nations native-american-nations-history Lenape (Delaware) People of the Delaware River area and Manhattan native-american-nations-history Cherokee Southeastern nation with its own writing system, created by Sequoyah native-american-nations-history Sequoyah Created the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s native-american-nations-history Trail of Tears Forced removal of Cherokee and other southeastern nations in the 1830s native-american-nations-history Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole Other nations forced west by removal, along with the Cherokee native-american-nations-history Seminole People who resisted removal in Florida in several wars native-american-nations-history Indian Removal Act (1830) Law that led to the forced move of Native nations to lands west of the Mississippi native-american-nations-history Navajo (Diné) Largest Native nation by population in the US, in the Southwest native-american-nations-history Long Walk (1864) Forced march of the Navajo to Bosque Redondo native-american-nations-history Navajo Code Talkers Marines in WWII who used the Navajo language as an unbreakable code native-american-nations-history Hogan Traditional Navajo home native-american-nations-history Pueblo peoples Hopi, Zuni, Taos and others who built villages of adobe in the Southwest native-american-nations-history Adobe Sun-dried brick made from clay and straw native-american-nations-history Pueblo Revolt (1680) Pueblo peoples drove the Spanish from New Mexico for about twelve years native-american-nations-history Popé Pueblo leader of the 1680 revolt native-american-nations-history Hopi Pueblo people of northern Arizona with ancient farming traditions native-american-nations-history Apache Southwestern nations including the Chiricahua native-american-nations-history Geronimo Apache leader who resisted forced removal native-american-nations-history Lakota Western Sioux people of the Great Plains native-american-nations-history Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, Nakota) Three related groups of Plains and prairie peoples native-american-nations-history Tipi Cone-shaped tent used by Plains peoples that could be moved easily native-american-nations-history Bison Plains peoples used nearly every part of the bison for food, tools and shelter native-american-nations-history Sitting Bull Lakota leader who resisted taking of the Black Hills native-american-nations-history Crazy Horse Lakota war leader at the Battle of the Little Bighorn native-american-nations-history Red Cloud Oglala Lakota leader who won a war in 1868 forcing the US to abandon forts native-american-nations-history Wounded Knee (1890) Massacre of Lakota people by the US Army in South Dakota native-american-nations-history Cheyenne Plains people who allied with the Arapaho and Lakota native-american-nations-history Comanche Skilled horse riders who dominated the southern plains native-american-nations-history Crow (Apsáalooke) Plains nation of Montana native-american-nations-history Blackfoot Plains nation in Montana and Alberta native-american-nations-history Nez Perce People of the Pacific Northwest plateau led by Chief Joseph in 1877 native-american-nations-history Chief Joseph Nez Perce leader who led a long march toward Canada and said 'I will fight no more forever' native-american-nations-history Totem pole Carved cedar pole telling family stories, made by Northwest Coast peoples native-american-nations-history Potlatch Feast where hosts gave gifts, practiced by Northwest Coast nations native-american-nations-history Tlingit, Haida, Kwakiutl Northwest Coast peoples famed for carving and salmon fishing native-american-nations-history Salmon Key food for Northwest peoples native-american-nations-history Inuit Indigenous peoples of the Arctic, who built igloos for winter hunting shelters native-american-nations-history Aleut (Unangan) Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska native-american-nations-history Kayak Narrow hunting boat developed by Arctic peoples native-american-nations-history Hawaiians Native Hawaiians are the Indigenous people of Hawaii, with their own language and culture native-american-nations-history Mississippian culture Mound-building societies in the Mississippi Valley, about 800-1500 CE native-american-nations-history Cahokia Largest Mississippian city, near St. Louis, with Monks Mound native-american-nations-history Hopewell Ancient Ohio Valley culture known for earthworks and trade native-american-nations-history Adena Early mound-building culture in the Ohio Valley native-american-nations-history Ancestral Puebloans Ancient builders of cliff dwellings like Mesa Verde native-american-nations-history Mesa Verde Colorado site of cliff dwellings built about 1190-1280 CE native-american-nations-history Chaco Canyon Ancient Pueblo center in New Mexico with great houses native-american-nations-history Mohawk Easternmost nation of the Haudenosaunee native-american-nations-history Pontiac's War (1763) Native alliance rose against British forces in the Great Lakes native-american-nations-history Tecumseh Shawnee leader who tried to unite Native nations in the early 1800s native-american-nations-history Tenskwatawa Shawnee prophet, Tecumseh's brother native-american-nations-history Joseph Brant Mohawk leader who sided with the British in the Revolution native-american-nations-history Worcester v. Georgia (1832) Supreme Court said Georgia could not control Cherokee land native-american-nations-history Reservation Land reserved for Native nations by treaty or law native-american-nations-history Indian Territory Land in present Oklahoma where many removed nations were sent native-american-nations-history Dawes Act (1887) Broke up reservation land into individual plots, reducing Native land native-american-nations-history Boarding schools Schools that separated Native children from their families and languages native-american-nations-history Indian Citizenship Act (1924) Granted US citizenship to Native Americans born in the US native-american-nations-history Indian Reorganization Act (1934) Ended allotment and encouraged tribal self-government native-american-nations-history American Indian Movement Activist group formed in 1968 native-american-nations-history Indian Self-Determination Act (1975) Gave tribes more control over programs and schools native-american-nations-history Powwow Gathering with dance, song and food celebrating Native culture native-american-nations-history Oral tradition Passing history and stories by speaking rather than writing native-american-nations-history Language revitalization Native communities are teaching and restoring their languages native-american-nations-history Native American Heritage Month November native-american-nations-history Jim Thorpe Sac and Fox athlete who won Olympic gold medals in 1912 native-american-nations-history Maria Tallchief Osage ballerina, America's first major prima ballerina native-american-nations-history Wilma Mankiller First woman elected Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, in 1985 native-american-nations-history Deb Haaland Laguna Pueblo member who was the first Native American US cabinet secretary native-american-nations-history Charles Curtis Kaw Nation member who served as vice president under Hoover native-american-nations-history Stamp Act (1765) A British tax on printed paper that colonists protested loudly us-american-revolution No taxation without representation Colonial slogan: colonists had no voice in the Parliament that taxed them us-american-revolution Sons of Liberty Colonial protest group that opposed British taxes us-american-revolution Townshend Acts (1767) British taxes on goods like glass, paper, paint and tea us-american-revolution Boston Massacre (1770) British soldiers fired into a Boston crowd and killed five colonists us-american-revolution Crispus Attucks A man of African and Native descent, the first person killed in the Boston Massacre us-american-revolution Tea Act (1773) British law that helped the East India Company sell tea in the colonies us-american-revolution Boston Tea Party (1773) Colonists dumped 342 chests of British tea into Boston Harbor us-american-revolution Intolerable Acts (1774) Punishing British laws after the Tea Party; the colonists' name for them us-american-revolution First Continental Congress (1774) Delegates from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia to answer British actions us-american-revolution Minutemen Colonial militia ready to fight at a minute's notice us-american-revolution Paul Revere Rider who warned of British troops marching in April 1775 us-american-revolution Lexington and Concord (1775) The first battles of the Revolutionary War, in Massachusetts us-american-revolution Shot heard 'round the world Famous poem phrase about the first shot at Concord us-american-revolution Second Continental Congress Met in 1775; ran the war and later voted for independence us-american-revolution Battle of Bunker Hill (1775) A costly British win near Boston that showed colonists could fight well us-american-revolution George Washington Chosen in 1775 to lead the Continental Army us-american-revolution Continental Army The army formed by the Second Continental Congress us-american-revolution Common Sense (1776) Thomas Paine's pamphlet arguing for independence in plain language us-american-revolution Thomas Paine Writer of Common Sense and The American Crisis us-american-revolution Declaration of Independence Adopted July 4, 1776; explained why the colonies were free from Britain us-american-revolution Thomas Jefferson Main writer of the Declaration of Independence us-american-revolution Committee of Five Group chosen to draft the Declaration: Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, Livingston us-american-revolution Loyalists Colonists who stayed loyal to the British king us-american-revolution Patriots Colonists who wanted independence us-american-revolution Redcoats Nickname for British soldiers because of their uniforms us-american-revolution Hessians German soldiers hired by Britain to fight in America us-american-revolution Washington crossing the Delaware A surprise Christmas night 1776 crossing before the Battle of Trenton us-american-revolution Battle of Trenton (1776) Washington's surprise win over Hessian troops in New Jersey us-american-revolution Battle of Saratoga (1777) American victory in New York that was the turning point of the war us-american-revolution Valley Forge Winter camp 1777-1778 in Pennsylvania where the army endured hardship and training us-american-revolution Baron von Steuben Prussian officer who trained the Continental Army at Valley Forge us-american-revolution Marquis de Lafayette French nobleman who joined Washington as a general us-american-revolution Alliance with France (1778) France joined the war on the American side after Saratoga us-american-revolution Battle of Yorktown (1781) Last major battle; British General Cornwallis surrendered us-american-revolution Lord Cornwallis British general who surrendered at Yorktown us-american-revolution Treaty of Paris (1783) Ended the war; Britain recognized American independence us-american-revolution Articles of Confederation First US plan of government, with a weak national government us-american-revolution Abigail Adams Wrote to John Adams asking him to 'remember the ladies' in new laws us-american-revolution John Adams Massachusetts leader who supported independence and later became the second president us-american-revolution Benjamin Franklin Diplomat who won French support in Paris us-american-revolution Samuel Adams Boston leader and organizer of protests against British taxes us-american-revolution Patrick Henry Virginian famous for 'Give me liberty, or give me death' us-american-revolution John Hancock Congress president whose signature on the Declaration was large and bold us-american-revolution Nathan Hale Patriot spy who said he regretted having only one life to give for his country us-american-revolution Molly Pitcher Name for women who carried water to soldiers and sometimes helped load cannons us-american-revolution Deborah Sampson A woman who disguised herself as a man to fight in the Continental Army us-american-revolution Haym Salomon Jewish financier who helped raise money for the war us-american-revolution Phillis Wheatley Enslaved poet in Boston whose poems were published in 1773 us-american-revolution Sybil Ludington Teen who rode at night to call militia in 1777, as the story goes us-american-revolution Francis Marion South Carolina leader nicknamed the Swamp Fox us-american-revolution Benedict Arnold American general who turned traitor and joined the British us-american-revolution John Paul Jones Naval commander famous for 'I have not yet begun to fight' us-american-revolution Bernardo de Galvez Spanish governor who helped the Americans by fighting the British in the Gulf region us-american-revolution Joseph Brant Mohawk leader who sided with the British us-american-revolution Boycott Refusing to buy goods as a protest; colonists used it against British goods us-american-revolution Taxation Charging money to support a government us-american-revolution Parliament Britain's lawmaking body us-american-revolution Repeal To cancel a law; Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 us-american-revolution Quartering Act British law requiring colonies to house soldiers us-american-revolution King George III British king during the Revolution us-american-revolution Independence Freedom from rule by another country us-american-revolution Committees of Correspondence Groups that shared news and plans among the colonies us-american-revolution Olive Branch Petition (1775) Congress's last request to King George to avoid war us-american-revolution Battle of Long Island (1776) Major British win in New York at the start of the campaign for the city us-american-revolution Battle of Cowpens (1781) American victory in South Carolina us-american-revolution Siege Surrounding a place to force it to give up us-american-revolution Treaty A written agreement between nations us-american-revolution Declaration signers Fifty-six delegates signed the Declaration us-american-revolution July 4 Date the Declaration was adopted, now Independence Day us-american-revolution Liberty Bell Famous bell in Philadelphia, a symbol of American freedom us-american-revolution Betsy Ross Philadelphia seamstress tradition says sewed an early American flag us-american-revolution Continental dollar Paper money printed by Congress that lost value quickly us-american-revolution Militia Citizen soldiers who served part time us-american-revolution Guerrilla warfare Fighting with small surprise attacks, used by some Patriot forces us-american-revolution Segregation Keeping people apart by race in schools, buses, restaurants and more us-civil-rights-movement Jim Crow laws Laws in the South that enforced segregation us-civil-rights-movement Discrimination Treating people unfairly because of who they are us-civil-rights-movement Civil rights Rights that guarantee equal treatment under the law us-civil-rights-movement NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909 us-civil-rights-movement Thurgood Marshall NAACP lawyer who argued Brown v. Board and became the first Black Supreme Court justice us-civil-rights-movement Jackie Robinson In 1947 became the first Black player in modern major league baseball us-civil-rights-movement Executive Order 9981 (1948) Truman ordered the end of segregation in the armed forces us-civil-rights-movement Brown v. Board of Education (1954) Supreme Court ruled that segregated public schools are unequal us-civil-rights-movement Earl Warren Chief Justice when the Court decided Brown v. Board us-civil-rights-movement Linda Brown Kansas student at the center of the Brown v. Board case us-civil-rights-movement Emmett Till Black teenager killed in Mississippi in 1955; his mother's courage drew national attention us-civil-rights-movement Rosa Parks In December 1955 she refused to give up her bus seat in Montgomery, Alabama us-civil-rights-movement Montgomery Bus Boycott A year-long refusal to ride city buses in 1955-56 us-civil-rights-movement Martin Luther King Jr. Baptist minister and leader of nonviolent protest us-civil-rights-movement Nonviolence Peaceful protest, a method King learned from Gandhi and the Gospel us-civil-rights-movement Mahatma Gandhi Indian leader whose peaceful methods inspired the movement us-civil-rights-movement SCLC Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a group led by King us-civil-rights-movement Little Rock Nine (1957) Nine Black students who integrated Central High School in Arkansas us-civil-rights-movement Integration Bringing people of different races together in schools and places us-civil-rights-movement Ruby Bridges At age six in 1960 she integrated an elementary school in New Orleans us-civil-rights-movement Greensboro sit-ins (1960) Four college students sat at a whites-only lunch counter in North Carolina us-civil-rights-movement Sit-in A protest where people sit in a place and refuse to leave us-civil-rights-movement SNCC Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, formed in 1960 us-civil-rights-movement Freedom Riders (1961) Black and white activists rode buses together through the South to test desegregation us-civil-rights-movement John Lewis Student leader and Freedom Rider who later served in Congress us-civil-rights-movement James Meredith First Black student at the University of Mississippi, in 1962 us-civil-rights-movement Birmingham campaign (1963) Protests in Alabama, including a march of many young people us-civil-rights-movement Letter from Birmingham Jail King's 1963 letter explaining why people should not wait for justice us-civil-rights-movement March on Washington (1963) Over 200,000 people gathered at the Lincoln Memorial for jobs and freedom us-civil-rights-movement I Have a Dream King's speech at the March on Washington, August 28, 1963 us-civil-rights-movement A. Philip Randolph Labor leader and a main organizer of the March on Washington us-civil-rights-movement Bayard Rustin Main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington us-civil-rights-movement 16th Street Baptist Church bombing (1963) Attack in Birmingham that killed four girls us-civil-rights-movement Civil Rights Act of 1964 Outlawed segregation in public places and discrimination in jobs us-civil-rights-movement Lyndon B. Johnson President who signed the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts us-civil-rights-movement Freedom Summer (1964) Volunteers worked to register Black voters in Mississippi us-civil-rights-movement Fannie Lou Hamer Mississippi voting rights activist who spoke at the 1964 Democratic Convention us-civil-rights-movement 24th Amendment (1964) Banned poll taxes in federal elections us-civil-rights-movement Poll tax A fee to vote that kept poor Black voters away from the polls us-civil-rights-movement Literacy test Reading tests unfairly used to keep Black citizens from voting us-civil-rights-movement Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) Marches for voting rights, including 'Bloody Sunday' on March 7 us-civil-rights-movement Edmund Pettus Bridge Selma bridge where marchers were attacked on Bloody Sunday us-civil-rights-movement Voting Rights Act (1965) Protected the right to vote and banned practices that blocked Black voters us-civil-rights-movement Malcolm X Leader who spoke for Black pride and self-determination us-civil-rights-movement Nation of Islam Religious and social group Malcolm X belonged to before 1964 us-civil-rights-movement Black Power Slogan from the 1960s about pride, strength and community control us-civil-rights-movement Black Panther Party Group founded in 1966 in Oakland, California us-civil-rights-movement Loving v. Virginia (1967) Supreme Court struck down laws against marriage between people of different races us-civil-rights-movement Thurgood Marshall's appointment (1967) Became the first Black justice on the Supreme Court us-civil-rights-movement Assassination of MLK (1968) King was killed in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968 us-civil-rights-movement Fair Housing Act (1968) Banned discrimination in selling or renting homes us-civil-rights-movement Poor People's Campaign Movement for economic justice that King was planning at his death us-civil-rights-movement Cesar Chavez Labor leader who organized farm workers and led nonviolent boycotts us-civil-rights-movement Dolores Huerta Co-founded the United Farm Workers with Chavez us-civil-rights-movement United Farm Workers Union of farm workers organized in the 1960s us-civil-rights-movement American Indian Movement (1968) Native activists working for treaty rights and justice us-civil-rights-movement Women's liberation movement Push for equal pay and rights for women in the 1960s and 70s us-civil-rights-movement Betty Friedan Author of The Feminine Mystique (1963) us-civil-rights-movement Title IX (1972) Law banning sex discrimination in schools that get federal money, including sports us-civil-rights-movement Equal Pay Act (1963) Law requiring equal pay for equal work regardless of sex us-civil-rights-movement Stonewall (1969) New York protest often seen as a spark of the gay rights movement us-civil-rights-movement Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) Banned discrimination against people with disabilities us-civil-rights-movement Ed Roberts Disability rights pioneer who helped start the independent living movement us-civil-rights-movement Japanese American redress (1988) Law that apologized for the WWII incarceration and paid survivors us-civil-rights-movement Civil disobedience Peacefully refusing to obey an unjust law us-civil-rights-movement Boycott Refusing to buy or use something as a protest us-civil-rights-movement Desegregation Ending separation of races us-civil-rights-movement Separate but equal Rule from Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), overturned for schools by Brown us-civil-rights-movement Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 case that allowed segregation us-civil-rights-movement Medgar Evers Mississippi NAACP leader killed in 1963 us-civil-rights-movement Ella Baker Organizer who helped start SNCC us-civil-rights-movement Claudette Colvin Teen who refused to give up a bus seat in Montgomery in March 1955 us-civil-rights-movement Constance Baker Motley Lawyer who argued important civil rights cases and became a federal judge us-civil-rights-movement Barbara Johns Teen who led a student walkout for better schools in Virginia in 1951 us-civil-rights-movement Septima Clark Teacher who started citizenship schools to prepare people to register to vote us-civil-rights-movement Main cause of the Civil War Disagreement over slavery and whether it could spread into new states and territories us-civil-war Union The Northern states that stayed in the United States us-civil-war Confederacy The eleven Southern states that left the Union us-civil-war Secession A state's decision to leave the Union us-civil-war First state to secede South Carolina, in December 1860 us-civil-war Abraham Lincoln 16th president; his election in 1860 led Southern states to secede us-civil-war Jefferson Davis President of the Confederacy us-civil-war Fort Sumter (1861) Confederate guns fired on this South Carolina fort, starting the war on April 12 us-civil-war Border states Slave states that stayed in the Union: Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri us-civil-war Robert E. Lee Commanding general of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia us-civil-war Ulysses S. Grant Union general who led all Union armies and later became president us-civil-war William T. Sherman Union general who led the March to the Sea through Georgia in 1864 us-civil-war Stonewall Jackson Confederate general famous for standing like a stone wall at Bull Run us-civil-war George McClellan Union general who trained the Army of the Potomac but moved cautiously us-civil-war Anaconda Plan Union plan to squeeze the South by blockading ports and taking the Mississippi River us-civil-war Blockade Using ships to keep supplies from reaching or leaving ports us-civil-war First Battle of Bull Run (1861) First big battle, in Virginia; showed the war would be long us-civil-war Ironclad Warship covered in iron plates us-civil-war Monitor and Merrimack (1862) First battle between ironclad ships; neither side won clearly us-civil-war Battle of Shiloh (1862) Bloody Tennessee battle that showed how costly the war would be us-civil-war Battle of Antietam (1862) Fought in Maryland on September 17; the bloodiest single day in American history us-civil-war Emancipation Proclamation Lincoln's order, effective January 1, 1863, freeing enslaved people in areas in rebellion us-civil-war 54th Massachusetts Famous regiment of Black soldiers led by white officers; attacked Fort Wagner in 1863 us-civil-war Black soldiers About 180,000 Black men served in the Union Army us-civil-war Robert Gould Shaw White colonel who led the 54th Massachusetts us-civil-war Harriet Tubman in the war Served the Union as a scout, nurse and spy us-civil-war Battle of Fredericksburg (1862) Confederate victory in Virginia with heavy Union losses us-civil-war Battle of Chancellorsville (1863) Lee's bold victory in Virginia, though Jackson was fatally wounded us-civil-war Siege of Vicksburg (1863) Grant captured this Mississippi River city after weeks of siege us-civil-war Battle of Gettysburg (1863) Three-day battle in Pennsylvania; Lee's northern invasion was turned back us-civil-war Pickett's Charge Failed Confederate assault on the last day at Gettysburg us-civil-war Turning points of 1863 Gettysburg and Vicksburg, both ending July 3-4 us-civil-war Gettysburg Address Lincoln's short speech in November 1863 about equality and a 'new birth of freedom' us-civil-war Draft riots (1863) Violent protests in New York City against the military draft us-civil-war Habeas corpus Right to challenge your imprisonment; Lincoln suspended it during the war us-civil-war Clara Barton Nurse who helped wounded soldiers and later founded the American Red Cross us-civil-war Dorothea Dix in the war Led the Union Army's nurses us-civil-war Women in the war Served as nurses and spies, ran farms and businesses, and a few disguised themselves to fight us-civil-war Soldier's diet Hardtack, a hard cracker, was a common food us-civil-war Hardtack A hard, dry biscuit given to soldiers us-civil-war Minie ball A cone-shaped rifle bullet that made battles deadlier us-civil-war Disease in the war More soldiers died of illness than of wounds us-civil-war Mathew Brady Photographer whose team showed the war's reality to the public us-civil-war Telegraph in the war Let Lincoln and generals send orders quickly us-civil-war Railroads in the war Moved troops and supplies quickly, especially for the Union us-civil-war Sherman's March to the Sea (1864) Union army cut through Georgia, destroying railroads and supplies us-civil-war Atlanta captured (1864) Sherman took Atlanta in September 1864, helping Lincoln win re-election us-civil-war Election of 1864 Lincoln won a second term us-civil-war Thirteenth Amendment Ended slavery in the US; passed by Congress in 1865 and ratified that December us-civil-war Siege of Petersburg Months-long Union siege in Virginia in 1864-65 us-civil-war Appomattox Court House Virginia town where Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865 us-civil-war Lee's surrender April 9, 1865, effectively ended the war in the East us-civil-war Lincoln's assassination John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln on April 14, 1865; he died the next day us-civil-war Andrew Johnson Became president after Lincoln's death us-civil-war Casualties About 620,000 soldiers died in the war us-civil-war Dred Scott decision (1857) Supreme Court ruled Black people could not be citizens and Congress could not ban slavery in territories us-civil-war Missouri Compromise 1820 plan that tried to balance slave and free states us-civil-war Compromise of 1850 Package of laws including California as a free state and a stronger Fugitive Slave Act us-civil-war Fugitive Slave Act Law requiring that escaped enslaved people be returned us-civil-war Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) Let settlers vote on slavery in those territories, leading to 'Bleeding Kansas' us-civil-war Bleeding Kansas Violent fighting in Kansas over slavery in the 1850s us-civil-war John Brown's raid (1859) Abolitionist John Brown attacked the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia us-civil-war Uncle Tom's Cabin 1852 novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that turned many against slavery us-civil-war Harriet Beecher Stowe Author of Uncle Tom's Cabin us-civil-war Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858) Illinois Senate debates that made Lincoln famous us-civil-war Stephen Douglas Illinois senator who debated Lincoln over slavery us-civil-war Republican Party Founded in 1854 to oppose spreading slavery into territories us-civil-war Sectionalism Loyalty to a region more than to the whole country us-civil-war States' rights Idea that states hold powers the federal government should not control us-civil-war Cotton in the South The Southern economy depended heavily on cotton grown by enslaved labor us-civil-war North's economy Based more on factories, trade and smaller farms us-civil-war Frederick Douglass in the war Urged Lincoln to free enslaved people and let Black men fight us-civil-war Contrabands Name for enslaved people who fled to Union lines us-civil-war Homestead Act and Morrill Act (1862) Laws passed during the war that gave land to settlers and colleges us-civil-war Greenbacks Paper money the Union printed to pay for the war us-civil-war Gettysburg National Cemetery Burial place for Union dead, where Lincoln spoke us-civil-war Battle of Mobile Bay (1864) Union naval victory under Admiral David Farragut that closed a key Confederate port us-civil-war Clara Barton's Red Cross Founded in 1881 after her war work us-civil-war Juneteenth June 19, 1865, when enslaved people in Texas learned they were free; now a national holiday us-civil-war Civil War War within one country between two sides us-civil-war Cold War Decades-long rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union that stopped short of direct war us-cold-war Superpowers The US and the Soviet Union, the two strongest nations after WWII us-cold-war Capitalism Economic system with private businesses and free markets us-cold-war Communism System where the government controls the economy and there is one party us-cold-war Iron Curtain Churchill's phrase for the line dividing communist Eastern Europe from the West us-cold-war Containment US policy of stopping communism from spreading us-cold-war Truman Doctrine (1947) Promised US aid to nations resisting communist takeover us-cold-war Marshall Plan US money that helped rebuild Western Europe after WWII us-cold-war Berlin Airlift (1948-49) Allies flew food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviets blocked roads us-cold-war NATO (1949) Western alliance in which members agree to defend one another us-cold-war Warsaw Pact (1955) Soviet-led military alliance in Eastern Europe us-cold-war Soviet atomic bomb (1949) The USSR tested its first nuclear weapon us-cold-war Arms race Competition to build more and better weapons us-cold-war Nuclear weapons Bombs of great destructive power, built by both sides us-cold-war Deterrence Preventing attack by showing that you could strike back us-cold-war Mutually assured destruction Idea that a nuclear war would destroy both sides, so neither would start one us-cold-war Korean War (1950-53) War in which the US and UN forces helped South Korea against North Korea and China us-cold-war 38th parallel Line that divided North and South Korea us-cold-war Armistice (1953) Ceasefire that ended the Korean War's fighting without a peace treaty us-cold-war McCarthyism 1950s practice of accusing people of being communists with little proof us-cold-war Joseph McCarthy Wisconsin senator who made many unproven accusations us-cold-war Red Scare Widespread fear of communists in America us-cold-war Duck and cover School drills that taught children how to protect themselves from an atomic blast us-cold-war Fallout shelter Underground room built to protect people from radioactive dust us-cold-war Sputnik (1957) First artificial satellite, launched by the Soviet Union us-cold-war Space Race Competition between the US and USSR to lead in space us-cold-war NASA US space agency, founded in 1958 us-cold-war National Defense Education Act 1958 law that increased money for science and math education us-cold-war Yuri Gagarin Soviet cosmonaut, first human in space in 1961 us-cold-war Alan Shepard First American in space, 1961 us-cold-war John Glenn First American to orbit Earth, 1962 us-cold-war Moon landing (1969) Apollo 11: Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the Moon on July 20 us-cold-war Neil Armstrong First person to step on the Moon us-cold-war Eisenhower President from 1953 to 1961 during the early Cold War us-cold-war Interstate Highway System Highway network started in 1956, partly for defense us-cold-war U-2 incident (1960) A US spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union us-cold-war Fidel Castro Led a revolution in Cuba in 1959 and ruled it as a communist leader us-cold-war Bay of Pigs (1961) Failed US-backed attempt to invade Cuba us-cold-war Berlin Wall (1961) Wall built by East Germany dividing East and West Berlin us-cold-war Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Tense 13 days when the US found Soviet missiles in Cuba us-cold-war John F. Kennedy President during the Cuban Missile Crisis us-cold-war Nikita Khrushchev Soviet leader during the Cuban Missile Crisis us-cold-war Hotline Direct phone line set up between Washington and Moscow in 1963 us-cold-war Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) Banned nuclear tests in the air, in space and underwater us-cold-war Vietnam War Conflict in Vietnam from the 1950s to 1975 in which the US supported South Vietnam us-cold-war Domino theory Belief that if one country fell to communism its neighbors would too us-cold-war Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) Gave President Johnson wide power to use force in Vietnam us-cold-war Tet Offensive (1968) Big surprise attacks in Vietnam that shook American support for the war us-cold-war Antiwar movement Protests against US involvement in Vietnam us-cold-war Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall in Washington, DC listing names of the Americans who died in the war us-cold-war Fall of Saigon (1975) South Vietnam's capital fell to North Vietnam, ending the war us-cold-war Détente Easing of tensions between the US and USSR in the 1970s us-cold-war Richard Nixon President who visited China in 1972 and Moscow the same year us-cold-war SALT I (1972) First treaty limiting some nuclear weapons us-cold-war Apollo-Soyuz (1975) US and Soviet spacecraft docked in orbit us-cold-war Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) Soviet troops entered Afghanistan, ending détente us-cold-war 1980 Olympic boycott The US and others stayed away from the Moscow Summer Games us-cold-war Ronald Reagan President in the 1980s who built up defense and later negotiated with the USSR us-cold-war Strategic Defense Initiative Reagan's plan for missile defense, nicknamed Star Wars us-cold-war Mikhail Gorbachev Last Soviet leader; introduced glasnost and perestroika us-cold-war Glasnost Gorbachev's policy of openness us-cold-war Perestroika Gorbachev's policy of restructuring the Soviet economy us-cold-war INF Treaty (1987) US-Soviet treaty eliminating a class of nuclear missiles us-cold-war Reagan's Berlin speech (1987) Reagan urged Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall us-cold-war Solidarity Polish workers' movement that helped end communism in Poland us-cold-war Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) On November 9, crowds opened the wall between East and West Berlin us-cold-war German reunification (1990) East and West Germany joined as one nation us-cold-war Collapse of the USSR (1991) The Soviet Union ended and split into 15 independent countries us-cold-war Proxy war A war where powers back opposing sides in another country us-cold-war Espionage Spying us-cold-war Sino-Soviet split Rift between China and the Soviet Union in the 1960s us-cold-war Marshall, Truman and Kennan Key figures in early containment; George Kennan wrote the 'Long Telegram' us-cold-war 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, became the first lasting English settlement in North America us-colonial-america 1619 The first enslaved Africans were brought to English Virginia; the House of Burgesses also first met us-colonial-america 1620 The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the Mayflower us-colonial-america Mayflower Compact A 1620 agreement by the Pilgrims to make fair laws and obey them us-colonial-america 1621 The Pilgrims and Wampanoag shared a harvest feast, often called the first Thanksgiving us-colonial-america 1630 Puritans led by John Winthrop founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony us-colonial-america 1636 Roger Williams founded Rhode Island; Harvard College was also founded us-colonial-america 1624 The Dutch began settling New Netherland, which later became New York us-colonial-america 1664 England took New Amsterdam from the Dutch and renamed it New York us-colonial-america 1682 William Penn founded Pennsylvania with Philadelphia as its city us-colonial-america 1732 Georgia, the last of the 13 colonies, was founded by James Oglethorpe us-colonial-america 1692 The Salem witch trials took place in Massachusetts us-colonial-america 1754 The French and Indian War began in North America us-colonial-america 1763 The Treaty of Paris ended the French and Indian War; Britain won Canada us-colonial-america Proclamation of 1763 British order that kept colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains us-colonial-america Thirteen colonies The British colonies on the Atlantic coast that became the first US states us-colonial-america New England Colonies Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Connecticut us-colonial-america Middle Colonies New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware us-colonial-america Southern Colonies Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia us-colonial-america Jamestown's early leader Captain John Smith, who insisted that settlers who did not work would not eat us-colonial-america Pocahontas A Powhatan girl connected to Jamestown who later married colonist John Rolfe us-colonial-america John Rolfe Jamestown settler whose tobacco crop made Virginia profitable us-colonial-america Cash crop A crop grown mainly to be sold, like tobacco in Virginia us-colonial-america Squanto A Patuxet man who taught the Pilgrims to grow corn and fish us-colonial-america William Bradford Governor of Plymouth Colony for many years us-colonial-america Anne Hutchinson A Puritan woman banished from Massachusetts for her religious ideas us-colonial-america Roger Williams Believed in separating church and government and in fair treatment of Native Americans us-colonial-america Lord Baltimore Founder of Maryland, planned as a home for English Catholics us-colonial-america William Penn A Quaker who made Pennsylvania a place of religious freedom us-colonial-america Quakers A Christian group that valued peace and equality us-colonial-america Puritans English Protestants who wanted to make the church simpler and purer us-colonial-america Pilgrims Separatists who left England to worship in their own way us-colonial-america Separatists People who wanted to break away from the Church of England us-colonial-america Indentured servant A person who worked for a set number of years to pay for the trip to America us-colonial-america Headright system Virginia plan that gave land to anyone who paid for a settler's trip us-colonial-america House of Burgesses The first elected lawmaking group in the English colonies, started in Virginia in 1619 us-colonial-america Town meeting A New England gathering where townspeople voted on local matters us-colonial-america Triangular trade Trade routes linking New England, Africa and the West Indies us-colonial-america Middle Passage The forced sea voyage that carried enslaved Africans across the Atlantic us-colonial-america Plantation A large farm in the South that grew crops like tobacco, rice and indigo us-colonial-america Slavery in the colonies Forced labor of enslaved Africans, legal in all thirteen colonies at the time us-colonial-america Great Awakening A religious revival in the 1730s and 1740s that spread through the colonies us-colonial-america Jonathan Edwards Preacher and leader of the Great Awakening us-colonial-america Benjamin Franklin Printer and inventor in Philadelphia; proposed the Albany Plan of Union in 1754 us-colonial-america Albany Plan Franklin's 1754 idea to unite the colonies for defense us-colonial-america Join, or Die Franklin's cartoon of a snake cut in pieces, urging the colonies to unite us-colonial-america George Washington A young Virginian who fought in the French and Indian War us-colonial-america Fort Necessity Small fort in Pennsylvania where Washington fought the French in 1754 us-colonial-america Mercantilism The idea that colonies exist to make the mother country rich us-colonial-america Navigation Acts British laws that made colonists trade mainly with Britain us-colonial-america Salutary neglect Britain's loose enforcement of colonial laws before 1763 us-colonial-america Charter A written document from the king giving a colony the right to exist us-colonial-america Proprietary colony A colony owned by one person or a family, like Pennsylvania us-colonial-america Royal colony A colony ruled directly by the king through a governor us-colonial-america Virginia The first of the thirteen colonies, founded at Jamestown us-colonial-america Plymouth Colony The Pilgrims' settlement in Massachusetts, begun in 1620 us-colonial-america Boston Main city of Massachusetts Bay and a busy colonial port us-colonial-america Philadelphia Largest colonial city by the 1770s; its name means brotherly love us-colonial-america Charleston Main port of South Carolina us-colonial-america Williamsburg Capital of colonial Virginia from 1699 us-colonial-america Pennsylvania Dutch German-speaking settlers in Pennsylvania us-colonial-america Hornbook A paddle-shaped board that held a lesson sheet for young colonial students us-colonial-america New England Primer A popular colonial reading book for children us-colonial-america Apprentice A young person who learned a trade by working for a master us-colonial-america Blacksmith Colonial worker who made tools and nails from iron us-colonial-america Cooper Colonial craftsperson who made barrels us-colonial-america Wampanoag Native nation in what is now Massachusetts who met the Pilgrims us-colonial-america Powhatan Confederacy Alliance of Native nations in tidewater Virginia us-colonial-america King Philip's War 1675-1676 conflict between New England colonists and Native nations led by Metacom us-colonial-america Metacom Wampanoag leader, called King Philip by the English us-colonial-america Fur trade Trade in animal pelts, important to the French and Dutch in North America us-colonial-america New France French territory in North America, centered on Quebec us-colonial-america Quebec City founded by the French in 1608 us-colonial-america Samuel de Champlain French explorer who founded Quebec us-colonial-america Henry Hudson English explorer working for the Dutch who sailed into the Hudson River in 1609 us-colonial-america Peter Stuyvesant Last Dutch governor of New Amsterdam us-colonial-america St. Augustine Spanish settlement in Florida, founded in 1565, the oldest European-founded city in the US us-colonial-america Lost Colony of Roanoke English settlement in 1587 whose people had vanished by 1590 us-colonial-america Virginia Dare First English child born in the Americas, at Roanoke in 1587 us-colonial-america Articles of Confederation First national plan of government (1781); it gave Congress little power us-early-republic Shays' Rebellion (1786-87) Farmers in Massachusetts protested debts and taxes, showing the need for a stronger government us-early-republic Northwest Ordinance (1787) Law for organizing new states north of the Ohio River and banning slavery there us-early-republic Constitutional Convention (1787) Philadelphia meeting that wrote the US Constitution us-early-republic James Madison Called the Father of the Constitution; fourth president us-early-republic Great Compromise Deal creating a Senate with equal votes and a House based on population us-early-republic Three-Fifths Compromise Counted three-fifths of enslaved people toward a state's population for representation us-early-republic Federalists Supporters of the new Constitution and a strong national government us-early-republic Anti-Federalists Opponents of the Constitution who feared a too-powerful government us-early-republic Federalist Papers Essays by Hamilton, Madison and Jay urging states to ratify the Constitution us-early-republic Bill of Rights First ten amendments, added in 1791 us-early-republic Ratification Formal approval; nine states had to approve the Constitution us-early-republic George Washington First president, serving 1789 to 1797 us-early-republic Cabinet Group of top advisers to the president us-early-republic Alexander Hamilton First Secretary of the Treasury; wanted a national bank and a strong economy us-early-republic Thomas Jefferson First Secretary of State and third president us-early-republic National bank Hamilton's plan for a bank to hold government money and print a stable currency us-early-republic Whiskey Rebellion (1794) Western Pennsylvania farmers protested a tax on whiskey; Washington sent troops us-early-republic Washington's Farewell Address Warned against political parties and entangling alliances with other nations us-early-republic Judiciary Act of 1789 Created the federal court system us-early-republic Political parties Federalists (Hamilton) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) formed in the 1790s us-early-republic John Adams Second president, 1797 to 1801 us-early-republic XYZ Affair (1797) French agents demanded bribes from American diplomats, angering the public us-early-republic Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) Laws that limited immigrants' rights and criticism of the government us-early-republic Election of 1800 Jefferson defeated Adams in a vote that moved power peacefully between parties us-early-republic Marbury v. Madison (1803) Supreme Court case that set up judicial review us-early-republic Judicial review The courts' power to decide that a law goes against the Constitution us-early-republic John Marshall Chief Justice who made the Supreme Court a strong branch us-early-republic Louisiana Purchase (1803) Jefferson bought land from France that doubled the size of the US us-early-republic Lewis and Clark Expedition 1804-1806 trip to explore the Louisiana Purchase and reach the Pacific us-early-republic Sacagawea Shoshone woman who guided and helped the Lewis and Clark expedition us-early-republic Corps of Discovery Name for the Lewis and Clark exploring group us-early-republic Zebulon Pike Army explorer who led an expedition in the Southwest and Rockies us-early-republic Embargo Act (1807) Jefferson's ban on American trade with other countries us-early-republic Impressment British practice of taking sailors off American ships to serve in its navy us-early-republic War Hawks Young Congress members who pushed for war with Britain in 1812 us-early-republic War of 1812 War between the US and Britain, 1812 to 1815 us-early-republic Tecumseh Shawnee leader who built a Native alliance to resist settlers' expansion us-early-republic Battle of Tippecanoe (1811) William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh's followers in Indiana us-early-republic USS Constitution Warship nicknamed Old Ironsides for its strong hull us-early-republic Burning of Washington (1814) British troops set fire to the Capitol and White House us-early-republic Francis Scott Key Wrote the words of The Star-Spangled Banner while watching Fort McHenry in 1814 us-early-republic Fort McHenry Baltimore fort that withstood British bombardment in 1814 us-early-republic Dolley Madison First lady who saved a portrait of Washington when the White House burned us-early-republic Treaty of Ghent (1814) Treaty that ended the War of 1812 us-early-republic Battle of New Orleans (1815) Andrew Jackson's victory, fought after the treaty was signed us-early-republic Era of Good Feelings Period around 1817-1825 of national pride and one dominant party us-early-republic James Monroe Fifth president, 1817 to 1825 us-early-republic Monroe Doctrine (1823) Warned European powers not to colonize the Americas us-early-republic Missouri Compromise (1820) Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state; set a line for slavery's spread us-early-republic Erie Canal (1825) Canal linking the Hudson River to Lake Erie, speeding trade us-early-republic Eli Whitney Invented the cotton gin in 1793 us-early-republic Cotton gin Machine that quickly cleaned cotton seeds, which increased demand for enslaved labor us-early-republic Industrial Revolution begins Early American factories, like Slater's mill in 1790, began making cloth us-early-republic Lowell mills Massachusetts textile factories that employed young women us-early-republic Steamboat Robert Fulton's Clermont made steam travel practical in 1807 us-early-republic Market revolution Growth of roads, canals and factories that tied farms to markets us-early-republic Andrew Jackson Seventh president, 1829 to 1837; champion of the 'common man' us-early-republic Jacksonian democracy Expansion of voting rights to most white men, regardless of wealth us-early-republic Spoils system Giving government jobs to loyal supporters us-early-republic Indian Removal Act (1830) Law that led to forcing Native nations from southeastern lands us-early-republic Trail of Tears Forced march of the Cherokee and other nations to Indian Territory in the 1830s us-early-republic Worcester v. Georgia (1832) Supreme Court said states could not rule Cherokee land; Jackson did not enforce it us-early-republic Nullification Crisis South Carolina tried to cancel a federal tariff in 1832 us-early-republic John C. Calhoun South Carolinian who defended states' power to nullify federal laws us-early-republic Second Great Awakening Religious revival of the early 1800s that inspired reform movements us-early-republic Abolitionist A person who wanted to end slavery us-early-republic Frederick Douglass Escaped from slavery and became a famed writer, speaker and abolitionist us-early-republic William Lloyd Garrison Boston editor who published The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper us-early-republic Seneca Falls Convention (1848) First women's rights convention, in New York us-early-republic Underground Railroad Secret network of people helping enslaved people reach freedom us-early-republic Harriet Tubman Escaped slavery and guided many others to freedom on the Underground Railroad us-early-republic Nat Turner's Rebellion (1831) Virginia uprising by enslaved people led by Nat Turner us-early-republic Horace Mann Reformer who promoted free public schools us-early-republic Dorothea Dix Reformer who worked to improve care for people with mental illness us-early-republic Sequoyah Created the Cherokee writing system in the 1820s us-early-republic Columbus reaches the Americas 1492 us-history-key-dates Jamestown founded 1607 us-history-key-dates Pilgrims land at Plymouth 1620 us-history-key-dates First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia 1619 us-history-key-dates Salem witch trials 1692 us-history-key-dates French and Indian War begins 1754 us-history-key-dates Stamp Act 1765 us-history-key-dates Boston Massacre 1770 us-history-key-dates Boston Tea Party 1773 us-history-key-dates Battles of Lexington and Concord 1775 us-history-key-dates Declaration of Independence adopted July 4, 1776 us-history-key-dates Battle of Saratoga 1777 us-history-key-dates Winter at Valley Forge 1777-1778 us-history-key-dates British surrender at Yorktown 1781 us-history-key-dates Treaty of Paris ends the Revolution 1783 us-history-key-dates Constitutional Convention 1787 us-history-key-dates George Washington becomes president 1789 us-history-key-dates Bill of Rights ratified 1791 us-history-key-dates Louisiana Purchase 1803 us-history-key-dates Lewis and Clark expedition 1804-1806 us-history-key-dates War of 1812 begins 1812 us-history-key-dates Star-Spangled Banner written 1814 us-history-key-dates Missouri Compromise 1820 us-history-key-dates Monroe Doctrine 1823 us-history-key-dates Erie Canal opens 1825 us-history-key-dates Indian Removal Act 1830 us-history-key-dates Battle of the Alamo 1836 us-history-key-dates Seneca Falls Convention 1848 us-history-key-dates California Gold Rush begins 1848 us-history-key-dates Mexican-American War ends 1848 us-history-key-dates Compromise of 1850 1850 us-history-key-dates Dred Scott decision 1857 us-history-key-dates Lincoln elected president 1860 us-history-key-dates Fort Sumter attacked 1861 us-history-key-dates Emancipation Proclamation 1863 us-history-key-dates Battle of Gettysburg 1863 us-history-key-dates Lee surrenders at Appomattox 1865 us-history-key-dates Lincoln assassinated 1865 us-history-key-dates 13th Amendment ratified 1865 us-history-key-dates Alaska purchased from Russia 1867 us-history-key-dates Transcontinental railroad completed 1869 us-history-key-dates Telephone patented 1876 us-history-key-dates Battle of Little Bighorn 1876 us-history-key-dates Light bulb perfected by Edison 1879 us-history-key-dates Statue of Liberty dedicated 1886 us-history-key-dates Ellis Island opens 1892 us-history-key-dates Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 us-history-key-dates Spanish-American War 1898 us-history-key-dates Wright brothers' first flight 1903 us-history-key-dates World War I begins in Europe 1914 us-history-key-dates US enters World War I 1917 us-history-key-dates 19th Amendment (women's suffrage) 1920 us-history-key-dates Stock market crash 1929 us-history-key-dates Franklin Roosevelt elected; New Deal begins 1932-1933 us-history-key-dates Social Security Act 1935 us-history-key-dates Pearl Harbor attacked December 7, 1941 us-history-key-dates D-Day June 6, 1944 us-history-key-dates World War II ends 1945 us-history-key-dates Marshall Plan 1948 us-history-key-dates Korean War begins 1950 us-history-key-dates Brown v. Board of Education 1954 us-history-key-dates Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-1956 us-history-key-dates Sputnik launched 1957 us-history-key-dates Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 us-history-key-dates March on Washington 1963 us-history-key-dates JFK assassinated 1963 us-history-key-dates Civil Rights Act 1964 us-history-key-dates Voting Rights Act 1965 us-history-key-dates Martin Luther King Jr. assassinated 1968 us-history-key-dates First Moon landing 1969 us-history-key-dates Nixon resigns 1974 us-history-key-dates Fall of Saigon 1975 us-history-key-dates Berlin Wall falls 1989 us-history-key-dates Soviet Union dissolves 1991 us-history-key-dates September 11 attacks 2001 us-history-key-dates Barack Obama elected 2008 us-history-key-dates Colony A territory ruled by another country us-history-vocabulary Settler A person who moves to and lives in a new place us-history-vocabulary Immigrant A person who moves to a new country to live us-history-vocabulary Emigrant A person who leaves one country to live in another us-history-vocabulary Pioneer One of the first people to settle in a new area us-history-vocabulary Frontier The edge of settled land us-history-vocabulary Territory Land owned by a country but not yet a state us-history-vocabulary Statehood Becoming one of the states us-history-vocabulary Expansion Growth in size or reach us-history-vocabulary Annex To add a territory to a country us-history-vocabulary Treaty A formal agreement between nations us-history-vocabulary Alliance A partnership among nations or groups us-history-vocabulary Neutral Not taking a side in a conflict us-history-vocabulary Revolution A sudden, major change, often in government us-history-vocabulary Rebellion An open fight against authority us-history-vocabulary Independence Freedom from outside control us-history-vocabulary Patriot A person who loves and supports their country us-history-vocabulary Loyalist A colonist who supported Britain us-history-vocabulary Tax Money people pay to support the government us-history-vocabulary Tariff A tax on goods from other countries us-history-vocabulary Boycott Refusing to buy or use something as a protest us-history-vocabulary Embargo A government ban on trade with a country us-history-vocabulary Constitution The written plan for a country's government and laws us-history-vocabulary Amendment A change or addition to the Constitution us-history-vocabulary Ratify To formally approve us-history-vocabulary Federal Having to do with the national government us-history-vocabulary Federalism Power shared between national and state governments us-history-vocabulary Republic A government where people elect representatives us-history-vocabulary Democracy Government by the people, through voting us-history-vocabulary Monarchy Government led by a king or queen us-history-vocabulary Dictator A ruler with total power us-history-vocabulary Compromise Each side gives up something to reach an agreement us-history-vocabulary Abolish To officially end something us-history-vocabulary Abolitionist Someone who worked to end slavery us-history-vocabulary Slavery The forced ownership and unpaid labor of people us-history-vocabulary Emancipation Freeing people from slavery us-history-vocabulary Secede To formally withdraw from a group or country us-history-vocabulary Union The states that stayed with the US during the Civil War; also the nation us-history-vocabulary Confederate Belonging to the Confederacy us-history-vocabulary Civil war A war between groups within the same country us-history-vocabulary Reconstruction The rebuilding of the South after the Civil War us-history-vocabulary Sharecropper A farmer who pays rent with part of the crop us-history-vocabulary Segregation Forced separation of people by race us-history-vocabulary Discrimination Unfair treatment based on identity us-history-vocabulary Suffrage The right to vote us-history-vocabulary Suffragist A person who worked for voting rights, especially for women us-history-vocabulary Industry Business that makes goods, often in factories us-history-vocabulary Factory A building where goods are made with machines us-history-vocabulary Urban Having to do with cities us-history-vocabulary Rural Having to do with the countryside us-history-vocabulary Monopoly Complete control of a product or service by one business us-history-vocabulary Union (labor) A group of workers organized to protect their interests us-history-vocabulary Strike Workers stop working to demand change us-history-vocabulary Reform To improve something by changing it us-history-vocabulary Progressive Favoring reform, as in the Progressive Era us-history-vocabulary Depression A long period of very weak economy and high unemployment us-history-vocabulary Inflation A general rise in prices us-history-vocabulary Recession A shorter, milder slump in the economy us-history-vocabulary Ration To limit how much people can have of something scarce us-history-vocabulary Draft A system that requires people to serve in the military us-history-vocabulary Propaganda Information used to push a view, often one-sided us-history-vocabulary Cold War Rivalry between the US and USSR without direct fighting between them us-history-vocabulary Communism System where the state controls the economy and property us-history-vocabulary Containment Policy to stop the spread of communism us-history-vocabulary Primary source Evidence from the time, like a letter, photo or diary us-history-vocabulary Secondary source A later account written about the past, like a textbook us-history-vocabulary Timeline A line of events shown in order us-history-vocabulary Era A long period of history with a common theme us-history-vocabulary Century One hundred years us-history-vocabulary Decade Ten years us-history-vocabulary Chronological order Arranged in the order events happened us-history-vocabulary Cause Why something happened us-history-vocabulary Effect What happened because of an event us-history-vocabulary Legacy What is left behind for the future us-history-vocabulary Heritage Traditions and history passed down us-history-vocabulary Landmark A place or event of historic importance us-history-vocabulary Memorial Something built to remember a person or event us-history-vocabulary Artifact An object made by people long ago us-history-vocabulary Historian A person who studies the past us-history-vocabulary Archaeologist A scientist who studies the past by digging up objects us-history-vocabulary Led the Continental Army and was the first president George Washington us-presidents-facts Second president; his son also became president John Adams us-presidents-facts Wrote the Declaration of Independence; made the Louisiana Purchase Thomas Jefferson us-presidents-facts Called the Father of the Constitution James Madison us-presidents-facts Warned European nations away from the Americas in 1823 James Monroe us-presidents-facts Son of the second president, he was the sixth John Quincy Adams us-presidents-facts Hero of the Battle of New Orleans; started the 'common man' era Andrew Jackson us-presidents-facts Served only one month in 1841 and died William Henry Harrison us-presidents-facts President during the Mexican-American War and the Oregon Treaty James K. Polk us-presidents-facts Led the nation during the Civil War and signed the Emancipation Proclamation Abraham Lincoln us-presidents-facts First president to be impeached by the House Andrew Johnson us-presidents-facts Civil War general who became the 18th president Ulysses S. Grant us-presidents-facts Shot in 1881 and died months later James A. Garfield us-presidents-facts Only president to serve two separate terms Grover Cleveland us-presidents-facts President when the Spanish-American War happened William McKinley us-presidents-facts Youngest person to become president, at age 42 Theodore Roosevelt us-presidents-facts Teddy bear was named after him Theodore Roosevelt us-presidents-facts Only person to be both president and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court William Howard Taft us-presidents-facts Led the US in World War I and proposed the League of Nations Woodrow Wilson us-presidents-facts President at the start of the Great Depression Herbert Hoover us-presidents-facts Only president elected four times Franklin D. Roosevelt us-presidents-facts Led the nation through the Depression and most of World War II Franklin D. Roosevelt us-presidents-facts Ordered the atomic bombs used to end World War II Harry S. Truman us-presidents-facts Supreme Allied commander in WWII who became president Dwight D. Eisenhower us-presidents-facts Started the Interstate Highway System Dwight D. Eisenhower us-presidents-facts Youngest person elected president, at age 43 John F. Kennedy us-presidents-facts First Catholic president John F. Kennedy us-presidents-facts President during the Cuban Missile Crisis John F. Kennedy us-presidents-facts Signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Lyndon B. Johnson us-presidents-facts President when Americans first walked on the Moon Richard Nixon us-presidents-facts Only president to resign from office Richard Nixon us-presidents-facts Became president after Nixon resigned, without being elected president or vice president Gerald Ford us-presidents-facts Peanut farmer from Georgia who became the 39th president Jimmy Carter us-presidents-facts Former actor and California governor who became president in 1981 Ronald Reagan us-presidents-facts President when the Berlin Wall fell George H. W. Bush us-presidents-facts President in the 1990s who was the 42nd Bill Clinton us-presidents-facts Son of the 41st president, he became the 43rd George W. Bush us-presidents-facts First Black president Barack Obama us-presidents-facts Presidents' term length Four years us-presidents-facts Maximum terms for a president Two elected terms, set by the 22nd Amendment (1951) us-presidents-facts Minimum age to be president 35 years old us-presidents-facts Who becomes president if the president cannot serve? The vice president us-presidents-facts The White House Home of the president at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC us-presidents-facts First president to live in the White House John Adams us-presidents-facts Camp David The president's country retreat in Maryland us-presidents-facts Air Force One The airplane that carries the president us-presidents-facts Oval Office The president's formal office in the White House us-presidents-facts Electoral College The system of electors who formally choose the president us-presidents-facts Inauguration Ceremony where a president takes the oath of office us-presidents-facts Inauguration Day January 20 (since 1937) us-presidents-facts Veto The president's power to reject a bill passed by Congress us-presidents-facts Executive order A directive issued by the president that has the force of law us-presidents-facts Commander in chief The president's role as head of the armed forces us-presidents-facts Cabinet Leaders of major government departments who advise the president us-presidents-facts First lady Title for the president's wife (so far); some have been active leaders us-presidents-facts Eleanor Roosevelt First lady who held press conferences and wrote a newspaper column us-presidents-facts Dolley Madison First lady known for hosting events and saving a portrait during the War of 1812 us-presidents-facts Abigail Adams First lady and trusted adviser to John Adams us-presidents-facts First president born a US citizen rather than a British subject Martin Van Buren us-presidents-facts Taller than most, 6 feet 4 inches Abraham Lincoln us-presidents-facts Protected millions of acres as national forests, parks and monuments Theodore Roosevelt us-presidents-facts Mount Rushmore presidents Washington, Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Lincoln us-presidents-facts President on the penny Abraham Lincoln us-presidents-facts President on the nickel Thomas Jefferson us-presidents-facts President on the dollar bill George Washington us-presidents-facts President on the five-dollar bill Abraham Lincoln us-presidents-facts President on the 50-dollar bill Ulysses S. Grant us-presidents-facts President on the quarter George Washington us-presidents-facts President on the dime Franklin D. Roosevelt us-presidents-facts Born on the Fourth of July Calvin Coolidge us-presidents-facts Died on July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the Declaration Thomas Jefferson and John Adams us-presidents-facts Had a pet raccoon named Rebecca Calvin Coolidge us-presidents-facts Won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 Theodore Roosevelt us-presidents-facts 1st president George Washington (1789-1797) us-presidents-in-order 2nd president John Adams (1797-1801) us-presidents-in-order 3rd president Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) us-presidents-in-order 4th president James Madison (1809-1817) us-presidents-in-order 5th president James Monroe (1817-1825) us-presidents-in-order 6th president John Quincy Adams (1825-1829) us-presidents-in-order 7th president Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) us-presidents-in-order 8th president Martin Van Buren (1837-1841) us-presidents-in-order 9th president William Henry Harrison (1841; died after one month) us-presidents-in-order 10th president John Tyler (1841-1845) us-presidents-in-order 11th president James K. Polk (1845-1849) us-presidents-in-order 12th president Zachary Taylor (1849-1850) us-presidents-in-order 13th president Millard Fillmore (1850-1853) us-presidents-in-order 14th president Franklin Pierce (1853-1857) us-presidents-in-order 15th president James Buchanan (1857-1861) us-presidents-in-order 16th president Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865) us-presidents-in-order 17th president Andrew Johnson (1865-1869) us-presidents-in-order 18th president Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877) us-presidents-in-order 19th president Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881) us-presidents-in-order 20th president James A. Garfield (1881) us-presidents-in-order 21st president Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885) us-presidents-in-order 22nd president Grover Cleveland (1885-1889; first of two separate terms) us-presidents-in-order 23rd president Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893) us-presidents-in-order 24th president Grover Cleveland (1893-1897; the same man as the 22nd) us-presidents-in-order 25th president William McKinley (1897-1901) us-presidents-in-order 26th president Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) us-presidents-in-order 27th president William Howard Taft (1909-1913) us-presidents-in-order 28th president Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) us-presidents-in-order 29th president Warren G. Harding (1921-1923) us-presidents-in-order 30th president Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929) us-presidents-in-order 31st president Herbert Hoover (1929-1933) us-presidents-in-order 32nd president Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) us-presidents-in-order 33rd president Harry S. Truman (1945-1953) us-presidents-in-order 34th president Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961) us-presidents-in-order 35th president John F. Kennedy (1961-1963) us-presidents-in-order 36th president Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969) us-presidents-in-order 37th president Richard Nixon (1969-1974) us-presidents-in-order 38th president Gerald Ford (1974-1977) us-presidents-in-order 39th president Jimmy Carter (1977-1981) us-presidents-in-order 40th president Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) us-presidents-in-order 41st president George H. W. Bush (1989-1993) us-presidents-in-order 42nd president Bill Clinton (1993-2001) us-presidents-in-order 43rd president George W. Bush (2001-2009) us-presidents-in-order 44th president Barack Obama (2009-2017) us-presidents-in-order 45th president Donald Trump (2017-2021; later also the 47th) us-presidents-in-order 46th president Joe Biden (2021-2025) us-presidents-in-order 47th president Donald Trump (Began a second term in 2025) us-presidents-in-order George Washington 1st president us-presidents-in-order John Adams 2nd president us-presidents-in-order Thomas Jefferson 3rd president us-presidents-in-order James Madison 4th president us-presidents-in-order James Monroe 5th president us-presidents-in-order John Quincy Adams 6th president us-presidents-in-order Andrew Jackson 7th president us-presidents-in-order Abraham Lincoln 16th president us-presidents-in-order Ulysses S. Grant 18th president us-presidents-in-order Theodore Roosevelt 26th president us-presidents-in-order Woodrow Wilson 28th president us-presidents-in-order Franklin D. Roosevelt 32nd president us-presidents-in-order Harry S. Truman 33rd president us-presidents-in-order Dwight D. Eisenhower 34th president us-presidents-in-order John F. Kennedy 35th president us-presidents-in-order Lyndon B. Johnson 36th president us-presidents-in-order Richard Nixon 37th president us-presidents-in-order Ronald Reagan 40th president us-presidents-in-order Bill Clinton 42nd president us-presidents-in-order Barack Obama 44th president us-presidents-in-order Grover Cleveland 22nd and 24th president us-presidents-in-order Herbert Hoover 31st president us-presidents-in-order Jimmy Carter 39th president us-presidents-in-order Andrew Johnson 17th president us-presidents-in-order Reconstruction The years after the Civil War (1865-1877) when the South was rebuilt and rejoined the Union us-reconstruction-gilded-age Freedmen's Bureau Agency that helped formerly enslaved people with food, schools and work us-reconstruction-gilded-age Black Codes Southern laws that tried to limit the freedom of Black people after the war us-reconstruction-gilded-age Thirteenth Amendment Ended slavery in 1865 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Fourteenth Amendment Gave citizenship and equal protection of the laws to people born in the US (1868) us-reconstruction-gilded-age Fifteenth Amendment Said the right to vote could not be denied because of race (1870) us-reconstruction-gilded-age Radical Republicans Congress members who wanted strong action to protect freed people us-reconstruction-gilded-age Andrew Johnson President who clashed with Congress and was impeached in 1868 but stayed in office us-reconstruction-gilded-age Impeachment Formal charges against an official that the House brings; the Senate holds the trial us-reconstruction-gilded-age Civil Rights Act of 1866 First federal law to define citizenship and equal rights for Black Americans us-reconstruction-gilded-age Reconstruction Acts (1867) Divided the South into military districts and set rules to rejoin the Union us-reconstruction-gilded-age Hiram Revels First Black US senator, from Mississippi, in 1870 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Carpetbaggers Name Southerners gave to Northerners who moved South after the war us-reconstruction-gilded-age Scalawags Name given to white Southerners who supported Reconstruction us-reconstruction-gilded-age Sharecropping System where farmers worked land for a share of the crop, often falling into debt us-reconstruction-gilded-age Ku Klux Klan Hate group formed in 1865 that used violence to stop Black Americans from voting us-reconstruction-gilded-age Enforcement Acts Laws of 1870-71 to protect voting rights and fight the Klan us-reconstruction-gilded-age Compromise of 1877 Deal that made Rutherford Hayes president and ended Reconstruction us-reconstruction-gilded-age Jim Crow laws Southern laws that separated people by race us-reconstruction-gilded-age Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) Supreme Court allowed 'separate but equal' public facilities us-reconstruction-gilded-age Historically Black colleges Colleges like Howard and Fisk were founded to educate freed people us-reconstruction-gilded-age Booker T. Washington Educator who founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama us-reconstruction-gilded-age Gilded Age Period of great wealth for a few and hardship for many, roughly 1870s to 1900 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Mark Twain Author who named the era 'the Gilded Age' in a novel us-reconstruction-gilded-age Industrialization Growth of factories and machines making goods us-reconstruction-gilded-age Robber barons Critics' name for rich business owners accused of unfair practices us-reconstruction-gilded-age Andrew Carnegie Steel tycoon who later gave away millions to build libraries us-reconstruction-gilded-age John D. Rockefeller Founder of Standard Oil, the largest oil company us-reconstruction-gilded-age J.P. Morgan Banker who financed and organized huge companies us-reconstruction-gilded-age Cornelius Vanderbilt Railroad and shipping tycoon us-reconstruction-gilded-age Monopoly When one company controls an industry, leaving buyers little choice us-reconstruction-gilded-age Trust A group of companies joined to control a market us-reconstruction-gilded-age Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) Law meant to stop monopolies us-reconstruction-gilded-age Laissez-faire Idea that government should stay out of business us-reconstruction-gilded-age Thomas Edison Inventor of the practical light bulb and a research laboratory at Menlo Park us-reconstruction-gilded-age Alexander Graham Bell Patented the telephone in 1876 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Bessemer process Method for making steel cheaply and in large amounts us-reconstruction-gilded-age Skyscraper Tall steel-frame building; first rose in Chicago in the 1880s us-reconstruction-gilded-age Electric streetcar Let cities spread outward us-reconstruction-gilded-age Urbanization Growth of cities us-reconstruction-gilded-age Tenement Crowded city apartment building, often with poor light and air us-reconstruction-gilded-age Jacob Riis Photographer who showed the crowded lives of poor people in New York us-reconstruction-gilded-age Jane Addams Founded Hull House in Chicago to help immigrants and the poor us-reconstruction-gilded-age Settlement house Community center in a poor neighborhood offering classes and care us-reconstruction-gilded-age Ellis Island New York immigration station that opened in 1892 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Statue of Liberty Gift from France, dedicated in 1886 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Angel Island California immigration station that mostly processed Asian immigrants us-reconstruction-gilded-age Nativism Favoring native-born people over immigrants us-reconstruction-gilded-age Old immigrants Mostly from northern and western Europe us-reconstruction-gilded-age New immigrants Late 1800s arrivals from southern and eastern Europe, like Italy and Poland us-reconstruction-gilded-age Labor union A group of workers who join to ask for better pay and conditions us-reconstruction-gilded-age American Federation of Labor Union group led by Samuel Gompers that organized skilled workers us-reconstruction-gilded-age Samuel Gompers Founding leader of the AFL us-reconstruction-gilded-age Strike Workers refusing to work until their demands are met us-reconstruction-gilded-age Haymarket Affair (1886) A Chicago labor rally ended in a bomb blast and deaths us-reconstruction-gilded-age Homestead Strike (1892) Steelworkers' strike in Pennsylvania against Carnegie Steel us-reconstruction-gilded-age Pullman Strike (1894) Railroad workers' strike that stopped trains across the nation us-reconstruction-gilded-age Eugene Debs Leader of the American Railway Union during the Pullman Strike us-reconstruction-gilded-age Child labor Children working in mines and factories, common before reform laws us-reconstruction-gilded-age Populist Party 1890s farmers' party that wanted silver coins, regulation of railroads and an income tax us-reconstruction-gilded-age William Jennings Bryan Populist-backed candidate famous for the 'Cross of Gold' speech in 1896 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Gold standard Money system where paper money is tied to gold us-reconstruction-gilded-age Political machine Organization that controlled a city's government, such as Tammany Hall us-reconstruction-gilded-age Boss Tweed Leader of Tammany Hall in New York, jailed for corruption us-reconstruction-gilded-age Spoils system Giving government jobs to supporters us-reconstruction-gilded-age Pendleton Act (1883) Created a civil service system where jobs go by merit us-reconstruction-gilded-age James Garfield Twentieth president, shot in 1881 by a man who wanted a government job us-reconstruction-gilded-age Interstate Commerce Act (1887) First law to regulate railroads us-reconstruction-gilded-age Spanish-American War (1898) War with Spain that gave the US Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines us-reconstruction-gilded-age USS Maine Battleship that exploded in Havana harbor in 1898, increasing calls for war us-reconstruction-gilded-age Rough Riders Volunteer cavalry led by Theodore Roosevelt in Cuba us-reconstruction-gilded-age Annexation of Hawaii (1898) The US took over the islands after Queen Liliuokalani was removed in 1893 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Queen Liliuokalani Last queen of Hawaii us-reconstruction-gilded-age Alaska Purchase (1867) US bought Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million us-reconstruction-gilded-age Seward's Folly Critics' mocking name for the Alaska purchase us-reconstruction-gilded-age Progressive Era Reform period from about 1890 to 1920 us-reconstruction-gilded-age Ida B. Wells Journalist who wrote against lynching and for justice us-reconstruction-gilded-age Susan B. Anthony Leader of the fight for women's right to vote us-reconstruction-gilded-age Centennial Exposition (1876) World's fair in Philadelphia marking 100 years of independence us-reconstruction-gilded-age Roaring Twenties The lively 1920s, a time of new products, jazz and rising prosperity for many us-roaring-twenties-depression Jazz Age Nickname for the 1920s, when jazz music became popular us-roaring-twenties-depression Harlem Renaissance 1920s flowering of Black art, music and writing centered in Harlem, New York us-roaring-twenties-depression Langston Hughes Poet of the Harlem Renaissance us-roaring-twenties-depression Louis Armstrong Jazz trumpeter and singer who became a star in the 1920s us-roaring-twenties-depression Duke Ellington Bandleader and composer who played at Harlem's Cotton Club us-roaring-twenties-depression Prohibition Ban on making and selling alcohol, from 1920 to 1933 us-roaring-twenties-depression 18th Amendment Started Prohibition us-roaring-twenties-depression 21st Amendment Ended Prohibition in 1933 us-roaring-twenties-depression Speakeasy Secret place that sold alcohol during Prohibition us-roaring-twenties-depression Flapper Young woman of the 1920s known for short hair and modern fashion us-roaring-twenties-depression Charles Lindbergh Made the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic, in 1927 us-roaring-twenties-depression Model T Henry Ford's affordable car, first sold in 1908 us-roaring-twenties-depression Assembly line Factory method where a product moves past workers, each doing one job us-roaring-twenties-depression Henry Ford Car maker who made automobiles cheap enough for many families us-roaring-twenties-depression Mass production Making large amounts of goods quickly using standard parts us-roaring-twenties-depression Radio New in the 1920s; families gathered to hear music, news and ball games us-roaring-twenties-depression Babe Ruth Baseball star who hit 60 home runs in 1927 us-roaring-twenties-depression Installment plan Buying now and paying in small payments over time us-roaring-twenties-depression Red Scare (1919-20) Fear of communists and radicals after World War I us-roaring-twenties-depression Immigration quotas 1920s laws limiting how many people could come from each country us-roaring-twenties-depression Scopes Trial (1925) Tennessee trial over teaching evolution in public schools us-roaring-twenties-depression Calvin Coolidge President from 1923 to 1929, known for supporting business us-roaring-twenties-depression Herbert Hoover President when the Great Depression began us-roaring-twenties-depression Stock market Place where shares in companies are bought and sold us-roaring-twenties-depression Buying on margin Buying stocks with borrowed money us-roaring-twenties-depression Stock market crash (1929) Stock prices fell sharply in October 1929, starting the Great Depression us-roaring-twenties-depression Black Tuesday October 29, 1929, one of the worst days of the crash us-roaring-twenties-depression Great Depression Severe economic slump in the 1930s with many job losses us-roaring-twenties-depression Unemployment When people who want jobs cannot find them us-roaring-twenties-depression Bank run When many people try to withdraw money at once, and banks fail us-roaring-twenties-depression Hoovervilles Camps of shacks for homeless people during the Depression us-roaring-twenties-depression Bread line Line of hungry people waiting for free food us-roaring-twenties-depression Soup kitchen Place serving free meals to people in need us-roaring-twenties-depression Dust Bowl 1930s drought and dust storms across the southern Plains us-roaring-twenties-depression Black Sunday (1935) April 14, a giant dust storm on the Plains us-roaring-twenties-depression Okies Nickname for people who left Oklahoma and nearby states for California us-roaring-twenties-depression The Grapes of Wrath John Steinbeck's novel about a family leaving the Dust Bowl us-roaring-twenties-depression Dorothea Lange Photographer whose pictures such as 'Migrant Mother' showed Depression hardship us-roaring-twenties-depression Bonus Army (1932) Veterans who marched to Washington asking for early payment of a bonus us-roaring-twenties-depression Smoot-Hawley Tariff 1930 law raising taxes on imported goods, which hurt world trade us-roaring-twenties-depression Franklin D. Roosevelt Elected in 1932; promised a New Deal us-roaring-twenties-depression New Deal Roosevelt's programs for relief, recovery and reform us-roaring-twenties-depression Fireside chats Roosevelt's radio talks explaining his plans in a calm voice us-roaring-twenties-depression First hundred days Spring 1933, when Congress passed many New Deal laws quickly us-roaring-twenties-depression Bank holiday (1933) Roosevelt closed banks briefly to check which were safe us-roaring-twenties-depression FDIC Created in 1933 to insure bank deposits us-roaring-twenties-depression Civilian Conservation Corps Gave young men jobs planting trees and building parks us-roaring-twenties-depression Works Progress Administration Gave jobs building roads, schools and public art us-roaring-twenties-depression Tennessee Valley Authority Built dams and brought electricity to the Tennessee River region us-roaring-twenties-depression Social Security Act (1935) Created pensions for older Americans and help for the unemployed us-roaring-twenties-depression SEC Securities and Exchange Commission, which oversees stock markets, formed in 1934 us-roaring-twenties-depression Wagner Act (1935) Protected workers' right to form unions us-roaring-twenties-depression Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) Set a minimum wage and a maximum workweek and limited child labor us-roaring-twenties-depression Eleanor Roosevelt First lady who spoke out for the poor and for civil rights us-roaring-twenties-depression Mary McLeod Bethune Educator who advised FDR and led efforts on Black youth issues us-roaring-twenties-depression Frances Perkins First woman in a US cabinet, Secretary of Labor under FDR us-roaring-twenties-depression Huey Long Louisiana senator who proposed the Share Our Wealth plan us-roaring-twenties-depression Court-packing plan (1937) Roosevelt's failed plan to add more Supreme Court justices us-roaring-twenties-depression Hindenburg disaster (1937) German airship burst into flames in New Jersey us-roaring-twenties-depression Amelia Earhart Pilot who flew solo across the Atlantic in 1932 and vanished in 1937 us-roaring-twenties-depression Jesse Owens Track star who won four gold medals at the 1936 Berlin Olympics us-roaring-twenties-depression Joe Louis Heavyweight boxing champion who became a national hero us-roaring-twenties-depression Radio dramas Shows like The Shadow and Fibber McGee entertained families us-roaring-twenties-depression Gone with the Wind 1939 film that won many Academy Awards us-roaring-twenties-depression The Wizard of Oz Film released in 1939 us-roaring-twenties-depression Monopoly game Board game that became popular during the Depression us-roaring-twenties-depression Hoover Dam Huge dam on the Colorado River finished in 1936 us-roaring-twenties-depression Golden Gate Bridge San Francisco bridge opened in 1937 us-roaring-twenties-depression Empire State Building New York skyscraper opened in 1931, then the world's tallest us-roaring-twenties-depression Recession A period of falling business activity and rising unemployment us-roaring-twenties-depression Deflation A general fall in prices us-roaring-twenties-depression Relief, recovery, reform The three Rs: the main goals of the New Deal us-roaring-twenties-depression Mexican repatriation In the 1930s many Mexican Americans were pressured or forced to leave the US us-roaring-twenties-depression End of the Depression Defense spending for World War II finally brought full employment us-roaring-twenties-depression Manifest Destiny 1840s belief that the US was meant to spread across the continent us-westward-expansion Oregon Trail Overland route of about 2,000 miles from Missouri to Oregon, used by wagon trains us-westward-expansion Wagon train A group of covered wagons traveling west together us-westward-expansion Prairie schooner Nickname for a covered wagon us-westward-expansion Pioneers People who settled new lands ahead of others us-westward-expansion Independence, Missouri A common starting town for the Oregon Trail us-westward-expansion Santa Fe Trail Trade route from Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico us-westward-expansion Mormon Trail Route Brigham Young led members of the Latter-day Saints to Utah in 1847 us-westward-expansion Brigham Young Led the Mormon pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley us-westward-expansion Texas Revolution (1835-36) Texans fought to break away from Mexico us-westward-expansion The Alamo (1836) Mission in San Antonio where Texan defenders fell after a 13-day siege us-westward-expansion Sam Houston Led Texans to victory at San Jacinto and became president of the Republic of Texas us-westward-expansion Republic of Texas Independent nation from 1836 to 1845 us-westward-expansion Texas annexation (1845) Texas joined the United States as a state us-westward-expansion Mexican-American War (1846-48) War between the US and Mexico over Texas and western lands us-westward-expansion Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) Ended the Mexican-American War; Mexico gave up California, Nevada, Utah and more us-westward-expansion Mexican Cession Land the US received from Mexico in 1848 us-westward-expansion Gadsden Purchase (1853) US bought a strip of land from Mexico for a southern rail route us-westward-expansion Oregon Treaty (1846) Agreement with Britain that set the northwest border at the 49th parallel us-westward-expansion Gold Rush (1848-49) Gold found at Sutter's Mill in California drew about 300,000 people us-westward-expansion Forty-niners Gold seekers who came to California in 1849 us-westward-expansion James Marshall Found gold at Sutter's Mill in January 1848 us-westward-expansion Prospector A person who searches for valuable minerals us-westward-expansion Boomtown A town that grows suddenly, often near a gold or silver find us-westward-expansion Ghost town A town left empty after the mines or railroads moved on us-westward-expansion Comstock Lode Huge silver discovery in Nevada in 1859 us-westward-expansion Pony Express (1860-61) Rider relay that carried mail between Missouri and California in about ten days us-westward-expansion Telegraph Machine that sent messages by electric wire; it ended the Pony Express in 1861 us-westward-expansion Homestead Act (1862) Gave 160 acres free to settlers who farmed it for five years us-westward-expansion Homesteader A settler who claimed land under the Homestead Act us-westward-expansion Sod house Prairie home built of cut blocks of grass and soil us-westward-expansion Exodusters Black families who moved from the South to Kansas in the 1870s us-westward-expansion Transcontinental railroad Rail line across the US, completed in 1869 us-westward-expansion Promontory Summit, Utah Site where the two railroads joined in 1869 with a golden spike us-westward-expansion Union Pacific Railroad company that built west from Nebraska us-westward-expansion Central Pacific Railroad company that built east from California us-westward-expansion Chinese railroad workers Thousands of immigrants who did dangerous work building the Central Pacific us-westward-expansion Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) Law that banned most Chinese immigration for ten years, then longer us-westward-expansion Cattle drive Moving herds of cattle on foot to railroad towns us-westward-expansion Chisholm Trail Route cattle drovers used from Texas to Kansas us-westward-expansion Cowboy A worker who tends cattle on ranches and drives us-westward-expansion Vaquero Mexican horseback herder whose methods shaped cowboy life us-westward-expansion Buffalo (bison) Large grazing animal of the plains that Plains peoples depended on us-westward-expansion Great Plains Wide grassland region in the middle of North America us-westward-expansion Plains Indians Nations such as the Lakota, Cheyenne, Comanche and Crow who lived on the Plains us-westward-expansion Lakota Sioux Plains nation of the northern plains and Black Hills us-westward-expansion Black Hills Lakota sacred lands; gold found there in 1874 led to conflict us-westward-expansion Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) Promised the Black Hills to the Lakota; later broken us-westward-expansion Sitting Bull Lakota leader who resisted giving up Plains lands us-westward-expansion Crazy Horse Lakota war leader who fought at Little Bighorn us-westward-expansion Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) Native warriors defeated Custer's troops in Montana us-westward-expansion George Custer US Army officer killed at Little Bighorn us-westward-expansion Wounded Knee (1890) Tragic killing of many Lakota people by US soldiers in South Dakota us-westward-expansion Reservation Land set aside by treaty or law for Native nations to live on us-westward-expansion Dawes Act (1887) Law that split reservation land into private plots, shrinking Native holdings us-westward-expansion Indian boarding schools Schools that took Native children from families to change their culture us-westward-expansion Chief Joseph Nez Perce leader who led a long retreat in 1877 and said he would fight no more forever us-westward-expansion Geronimo Apache leader who resisted US forces in the Southwest us-westward-expansion Cherokee removal Forced move of the Cherokee from their southeastern homes in the 1830s us-westward-expansion Donner Party California-bound pioneers trapped by winter snow in 1846-47 us-westward-expansion Whitman Mission Missionary settlement in Oregon Country involved in tragic conflict in 1847 us-westward-expansion Lewis and Clark Explorers of the Louisiana Purchase 1804-1806 who opened interest in the West us-westward-expansion Louisiana Purchase 1803 land deal from France that opened the West us-westward-expansion Frontier Edge of settled land, where few people lived us-westward-expansion Frederick Jackson Turner Historian who argued in 1893 that the frontier shaped American life us-westward-expansion Annie Oakley Sharpshooter famous in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show us-westward-expansion Buffalo Bill Cody Showman whose Wild West show toured the US and Europe us-westward-expansion Laura Ingalls Wilder Author of the Little House books about prairie childhood us-westward-expansion Mountain men Trappers who lived in the Rockies and traded furs us-westward-expansion Jim Bridger Mountain man and guide who knew the Rockies well us-westward-expansion Kit Carson Scout and guide in the West us-westward-expansion Rocky Mountains Mountain chain that wagon trains crossed through passes like South Pass us-westward-expansion South Pass Wide Rocky Mountain gap in Wyoming used by the Oregon Trail us-westward-expansion Fort Laramie Fort in Wyoming that served as a stop on the Oregon Trail us-westward-expansion Statehood for California (1850) California entered as a free state after the Gold Rush us-westward-expansion Utah Territory Settled by Mormon pioneers around Salt Lake City us-westward-expansion Land rush (1889) Settlers raced to claim free lands in Oklahoma us-westward-expansion Oklahoma Territory Opened to settlers by land runs beginning in 1889 us-westward-expansion Barbed wire Cheap fencing that let ranchers and farmers close off land in the 1870s us-westward-expansion Steel plow John Deere's plow that could cut through tough prairie sod us-westward-expansion Windmill Tool that pumped water for farms and ranches on dry plains us-westward-expansion World War I Global war from 1914 to 1918 among the Allies and the Central Powers us-world-wars Allied Powers Britain, France, Russia and later the US and Italy us-world-wars Central Powers Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria us-world-wars Archduke Franz Ferdinand Austrian heir whose 1914 assassination set off the war us-world-wars Neutrality Not taking sides in a war; the US stayed neutral until 1917 us-world-wars Lusitania (1915) British passenger ship sunk by a German submarine, killing 128 Americans us-world-wars Zimmermann Telegram Secret 1917 German message proposing an alliance with Mexico, which angered Americans us-world-wars US enters WWI (April 1917) Congress declared war on Germany after submarine attacks us-world-wars Woodrow Wilson President during World War I who proposed the Fourteen Points us-world-wars Fourteen Points Wilson's plan for peace, including a League of Nations us-world-wars American Expeditionary Forces US troops sent to Europe, led by General John Pershing us-world-wars John J. Pershing Commander of US forces in Europe in WWI us-world-wars Trench warfare Fighting from long ditches, common on the Western Front us-world-wars Armistice (Nov. 11, 1918) Cease-fire that ended the fighting in World War I us-world-wars Treaty of Versailles 1919 peace treaty with Germany us-world-wars League of Nations International group meant to keep peace; the US Senate refused to join us-world-wars Liberty bonds War bonds citizens bought to lend money to the government us-world-wars Selective Service System for drafting people into the military us-world-wars 19th Amendment (1920) Gave women the right to vote us-world-wars Great Migration Millions of Black Americans moved from the South to northern cities, starting around 1916 us-world-wars Rise of dictators In the 1930s Hitler, Mussolini and others took power in Europe and Japan expanded in Asia us-world-wars World War II Global war from 1939 to 1945 us-world-wars Axis Powers Germany, Italy and Japan us-world-wars Allies in WWII Britain, the Soviet Union, the US, China and others us-world-wars Adolf Hitler Nazi dictator of Germany who started the war us-world-wars Neutrality Acts 1930s laws trying to keep the US out of foreign wars us-world-wars Lend-Lease Act (1941) Let the US supply weapons and goods to Allies us-world-wars Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941) Japan's surprise attack on the US naval base in Hawaii us-world-wars Infamous date FDR called December 7, 1941 'a date which will live in infamy' us-world-wars Franklin D. Roosevelt President during most of the Depression and World War II us-world-wars Holocaust Nazi Germany's murder of six million Jewish people and millions of others us-world-wars D-Day (June 6, 1944) Allied landing in Normandy, France, the largest sea invasion ever us-world-wars Dwight Eisenhower Supreme Allied commander in Europe; later president us-world-wars Normandy Region of France where the D-Day landings occurred us-world-wars Battle of the Bulge (1944-45) Germany's last big attack in the West, in Belgium us-world-wars V-E Day (May 8, 1945) Victory in Europe: Germany surrendered us-world-wars Battle of Midway (1942) Naval battle that turned the Pacific war toward the US us-world-wars Island hopping US plan to take key Pacific islands and skip others us-world-wars Iwo Jima Pacific island taken by US Marines in 1945; famous flag-raising photo us-world-wars Douglas MacArthur General who led US forces in the Pacific us-world-wars Chester Nimitz Admiral in charge of the US Pacific Fleet us-world-wars Manhattan Project Secret US program that built the first atomic bombs us-world-wars Atomic bombs (Aug. 1945) Dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, before Japan's surrender us-world-wars V-J Day (Aug. 14-15, 1945) Japan announced surrender; formal signing on September 2 us-world-wars United Nations International organization formed in 1945 to keep peace us-world-wars Home front What people did at home to support the war us-world-wars Rationing Limiting how much of items like sugar, gas and rubber people could buy us-world-wars Victory garden Home vegetable garden planted to ease food shortages us-world-wars Rosie the Riveter Symbol of women who worked in factories during the war us-world-wars War bonds Savings bonds sold to help pay for the war us-world-wars Scrap drives Families collected metal, rubber and paper for the war effort us-world-wars Tuskegee Airmen Black fighter pilots who trained in Alabama and served with honor us-world-wars Navajo Code Talkers Marines who used the Navajo language to send unbreakable messages us-world-wars 442nd Regimental Combat Team Japanese American unit that became the most decorated for its size us-world-wars Japanese American incarceration Over 100,000 Japanese Americans were forced from their homes to camps; it is now seen as a grave injustice us-world-wars Executive Order 9066 1942 order that allowed the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast us-world-wars Women's Army Corps Created in 1942 so women could serve in the Army us-world-wars WASP Women Airforce Service Pilots, who flew military aircraft within the US us-world-wars G.I. Bill (1944) Gave veterans help with college, loans and housing us-world-wars Yalta Conference (1945) Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin planned the end of the war us-world-wars Winston Churchill British prime minister during most of the war us-world-wars Joseph Stalin Leader of the Soviet Union us-world-wars Harry Truman Became president when FDR died in April 1945 us-world-wars Marshall Plan (1948) US aid that helped rebuild Western Europe us-world-wars Nuremberg Trials Courts that tried Nazi leaders for war crimes us-world-wars Anne Frank Jewish girl whose diary describes hiding from the Nazis in Amsterdam us-world-wars Code breaking Allied codebreakers broke Axis codes and helped win key battles us-world-wars Radar Technology using radio waves to find aircraft and ships us-world-wars Sgt. Alvin York WWI soldier famed for bravery in the Argonne Forest us-world-wars Harlem Hellfighters 369th Infantry, a Black regiment that fought with French forces in WWI us-world-wars Spanish flu (1918) Worldwide flu outbreak that killed millions near the end of WWI us-world-wars Red Cross in wartime Helped wounded soldiers and war refugees us-world-wars Total war When a country uses all its resources, including factories and citizens, for war us-world-wars Kush Kingdom south of Egypt in Nubia; its rulers once ruled Egypt as the 25th dynasty world-african-kingdoms Meroe Kushite capital famous for iron working and pyramids world-african-kingdoms Aksum (Axum) Powerful trading kingdom in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea world-african-kingdoms Ezana Aksumite king who adopted Christianity in the 300s world-african-kingdoms Stelae of Aksum Tall carved stone monuments in Aksum world-african-kingdoms Ge'ez Ancient language and script of Aksum, still used in church world-african-kingdoms Sahara World's largest hot desert, crossed by trade caravans world-african-kingdoms Sahel Dry grassland belt south of the Sahara world-african-kingdoms Savanna Grassland with scattered trees world-african-kingdoms Trans-Saharan trade Caravans carried gold and salt across the desert world-african-kingdoms Camel Desert animal that made trade across the Sahara possible world-african-kingdoms Caravan Group of traders traveling together world-african-kingdoms Salt Valuable in West Africa; traded for gold world-african-kingdoms Gold Mined in West Africa and traded to North Africa and beyond world-african-kingdoms Ghana Empire West African trading empire, about 300-1100 CE (not today's Ghana) world-african-kingdoms Wagadu Local name for the Ghana Empire world-african-kingdoms Kumbi Saleh Ghana's capital and trading city world-african-kingdoms Mali Empire Large West African empire that peaked in the 1300s world-african-kingdoms Sundiata Keita Founder of the Mali Empire, about 1235 world-african-kingdoms Epic of Sundiata Story of the founder of Mali, told by griots world-african-kingdoms Griot West African storyteller and keeper of history world-african-kingdoms Mansa Title meaning 'king' in Mali world-african-kingdoms Mansa Musa Mali's king famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 world-african-kingdoms Hajj Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca world-african-kingdoms Timbuktu Mali trading city and center of Islamic learning world-african-kingdoms Sankore Mosque and university in Timbuktu world-african-kingdoms Djinguereber Mosque Mud-brick mosque in Timbuktu, built in the 1300s world-african-kingdoms Manuscripts of Timbuktu Hundreds of thousands of handwritten books on many subjects world-african-kingdoms Ibn Battuta Moroccan traveler who visited Mali in the 1350s world-african-kingdoms Songhai Empire Largest West African empire, 1400s-1591 world-african-kingdoms Sunni Ali Songhai ruler who built the empire and took Timbuktu world-african-kingdoms Askia the Great Songhai ruler who strengthened the empire and promoted learning world-african-kingdoms Gao Songhai capital on the Niger River world-african-kingdoms Battle of Tondibi (1591) Moroccan forces with guns defeated Songhai world-african-kingdoms Niger River Major river of West Africa world-african-kingdoms Great Zimbabwe Stone city built in southern Africa, about 1100-1450 world-african-kingdoms Zimbabwe (word) From a word meaning 'stone houses' or 'venerated houses' world-african-kingdoms Shona People linked to Great Zimbabwe world-african-kingdoms Swahili Coast East African coast where African and Arab trade cultures blended world-african-kingdoms Kilwa Wealthy Swahili trading city on an island world-african-kingdoms Swahili Bantu language with many Arabic words, spoken in East Africa world-african-kingdoms Mombasa Trading port on the Kenyan coast world-african-kingdoms Indian Ocean trade Monsoon winds carried ships between Africa, Arabia and Asia world-african-kingdoms Dhow Triangular-sail ship used on the Indian Ocean world-african-kingdoms Benin Kingdom Forest kingdom in today's Nigeria with a strong ruler, the Oba world-african-kingdoms Oba King of Benin world-african-kingdoms Benin Bronzes Famous plaques and sculptures made by Benin artists world-african-kingdoms Ife Yoruba city known for its fine brass and terra-cotta heads world-african-kingdoms Yoruba People of southwestern Nigeria with a rich art tradition world-african-kingdoms Hausa city-states Trading states in northern Nigeria, like Kano world-african-kingdoms Kanem-Bornu Empire near Lake Chad, long-lasting world-african-kingdoms Ethiopia African land with ancient Christian kingdoms and never colonized for long world-african-kingdoms Lalibela Town in Ethiopia with churches carved from rock in the 1200s world-african-kingdoms Queen Nzinga Ruler of Ndongo and Matamba who resisted Portuguese rule in the 1600s world-african-kingdoms Kongo Kingdom Central African kingdom that traded with Portugal world-african-kingdoms Bantu migrations Spread of Bantu-speaking peoples across much of Africa over centuries world-african-kingdoms Iron working Skill that spread through sub-Saharan Africa and made tools stronger world-african-kingdoms Nok culture Ancient culture of Nigeria known for terra-cotta sculpture world-african-kingdoms Transatlantic slave trade Forced removal of millions of Africans to the Americas from the 1500s to the 1800s world-african-kingdoms Colonialism Control of a land by a foreign power world-african-kingdoms Berlin Conference (1884-85) European powers set rules for dividing Africa among themselves world-african-kingdoms Scramble for Africa European takeover of most of Africa between 1880 and 1914 world-african-kingdoms Shaka Zulu Leader who built the powerful Zulu kingdom in the early 1800s world-african-kingdoms Menelik II Ethiopian emperor who defeated Italy at Adwa in 1896 world-african-kingdoms Battle of Adwa (1896) Ethiopian victory that secured its independence world-african-kingdoms Kwame Nkrumah Led Ghana to independence in 1957 world-african-kingdoms Independence era Most African countries gained independence between 1950 and 1975 world-african-kingdoms Nelson Mandela Anti-apartheid leader who became South Africa's first Black president world-african-kingdoms Apartheid South African system of racial separation, ended in the early 1990s world-african-kingdoms Wangari Maathai Kenyan environmentalist who founded the Green Belt Movement world-african-kingdoms Africa Second-largest continent, with 54 countries world-african-kingdoms Yellow River (Huang He) River where early Chinese civilization began world-ancient-china Yangtze River China's longest river world-ancient-china Dynasty A line of rulers from one family world-ancient-china Shang Dynasty Early dynasty known for bronze and oracle bones, about 1600-1046 BCE world-ancient-china Oracle bones Animal bones with the earliest Chinese writing, used to ask the gods questions world-ancient-china Zhou Dynasty Long dynasty that introduced the idea of the Mandate of Heaven world-ancient-china Mandate of Heaven Belief that Heaven gave a just ruler the right to rule and could take it away world-ancient-china Confucius Teacher (551-479 BCE) who stressed respect, learning and good government world-ancient-china Confucianism Philosophy of proper behavior, family loyalty and education world-ancient-china Filial piety Respect and care for parents and elders world-ancient-china Daoism (Taoism) Philosophy of living in harmony with nature, linked to Laozi world-ancient-china Laozi Traditional author of the Daodejing world-ancient-china Yin and yang Opposite forces that balance each other world-ancient-china Legalism Philosophy that strong laws and harsh punishment keep order world-ancient-china Warring States Period Time of war among rival Chinese states, ending in 221 BCE world-ancient-china Qin Dynasty First dynasty to unite China, 221-206 BCE world-ancient-china Qin Shi Huang First emperor of a unified China world-ancient-china Great Wall of China Long defensive walls begun by Qin and rebuilt by later dynasties world-ancient-china Terra-cotta Army Thousands of clay soldiers buried with Qin Shi Huang world-ancient-china Standardization Qin made weights, measures, money and writing the same across China world-ancient-china Han Dynasty Long dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) that expanded China and grew trade world-ancient-china Han Wudi Han emperor who expanded the empire and started the Silk Road trade world-ancient-china Silk Road Network of trade routes linking China with the Mediterranean world-ancient-china Zhang Qian Han envoy whose travels helped open the Silk Road world-ancient-china Silk Fine cloth made by silkworms; China kept the method secret for centuries world-ancient-china Paper Invented in China, improved by Cai Lun around 105 CE world-ancient-china Printing Woodblock printing began in China by the Tang era; movable type came later world-ancient-china Gunpowder Developed in China, first used for fireworks and later for weapons world-ancient-china Compass Magnetic tool invented in China for finding direction world-ancient-china Four Great Inventions Paper, printing, gunpowder and the compass world-ancient-china Seismograph Zhang Heng's device (132 CE) for detecting earthquakes world-ancient-china Civil service exam Test used to choose government officials by merit world-ancient-china Tang Dynasty 618-907; a golden age of poetry, art and trade world-ancient-china Li Bai Famous Tang poet world-ancient-china Du Fu Tang poet known for poems about people's hardships world-ancient-china Wu Zetian Only woman to rule China as emperor, in the Tang era world-ancient-china Chang'an Tang capital, one of the world's biggest cities world-ancient-china Song Dynasty 960-1279; saw paper money, movable type and great cities world-ancient-china Paper money First widely used in Song China world-ancient-china Grand Canal Long waterway linking northern and southern China, begun in the Sui era world-ancient-china Sui Dynasty Short dynasty that reunified China in 589 and built the Grand Canal world-ancient-china Mongols Nomadic people who conquered China under Kublai Khan world-ancient-china Genghis Khan Founder of the Mongol Empire world-ancient-china Kublai Khan Mongol ruler who founded the Yuan Dynasty in 1271 world-ancient-china Yuan Dynasty Mongol-led dynasty in China, 1271-1368 world-ancient-china Marco Polo Italian merchant who wrote about his travels in Asia world-ancient-china Ming Dynasty 1368-1644; Chinese rule restored; built the Forbidden City world-ancient-china Zheng He Admiral who led huge treasure fleets across the Indian Ocean in the early 1400s world-ancient-china Forbidden City Imperial palace complex in Beijing world-ancient-china Beijing Capital of China from the Ming era onward world-ancient-china Qing Dynasty Last dynasty, 1644-1912, ruled by Manchus world-ancient-china Manchus People from northeast China who founded the Qing world-ancient-china Queue Braided hairstyle men were required to wear under the Qing world-ancient-china Opium Wars Conflicts with Britain in the 1800s over trade that weakened Qing China world-ancient-china Taiping Rebellion Massive 1850-1864 uprising during the Qing era world-ancient-china Boxer Rebellion 1899-1901 uprising against foreign influence world-ancient-china Puyi Last emperor of China, who gave up the throne in 1912 world-ancient-china Sun Yat-sen Leader of the 1911 revolution that ended imperial rule world-ancient-china Republic of China Government that began in 1912 world-ancient-china Chinese characters Writing system in which each symbol stands for a word or idea world-ancient-china Calligraphy Art of beautiful brush writing world-ancient-china Abacus Counting frame with beads world-ancient-china Acupuncture Medicine practice using thin needles in the body world-ancient-china Porcelain Fine ceramic called 'china' in English world-ancient-china Terraced rice paddies Stepped fields for growing rice on hills world-ancient-china Rice Main food in southern China world-ancient-china Millet Main grain in early northern China world-ancient-china Tea Drink used in China for thousands of years world-ancient-china Chinese New Year Major holiday based on the lunar calendar world-ancient-china Lunar calendar Calendar following the Moon's phases world-ancient-china Chinese zodiac Twelve-year cycle of animals world-ancient-china Dragon Symbol of imperial power and good fortune world-ancient-china Great Wall length All its sections together measure thousands of miles world-ancient-china Shi Huangdi's tomb Large burial complex near Xi'an world-ancient-china Xi'an City near where the Terra-cotta Army was found in 1974 world-ancient-china Han Chinese Largest ethnic group in China world-ancient-china Peasant Farmer; most people were peasants world-ancient-china Scholar-official Educated person who served the government world-ancient-china Cultural Revolution 1966-1976 political campaign in China that caused great disruption world-ancient-china Nile River Long river whose yearly flood made Egyptian farmland rich world-ancient-egypt Delta Fan-shaped land where the Nile meets the Mediterranean Sea world-ancient-egypt Upper and Lower Egypt The two regions joined as one kingdom around 3100 BCE world-ancient-egypt Narmer King traditionally credited with uniting Egypt world-ancient-egypt Pharaoh Ruler of ancient Egypt, seen as a god-king world-ancient-egypt Dynasty A line of rulers from the same family world-ancient-egypt Old Kingdom Period of the great pyramids, about 2686-2181 BCE world-ancient-egypt Middle Kingdom Period of reunified and strong rule, about 2055-1650 BCE world-ancient-egypt New Kingdom Period of Egypt's greatest power, about 1550-1070 BCE world-ancient-egypt Pyramid Huge stone tomb built for a pharaoh world-ancient-egypt Great Pyramid of Giza Built for Khufu; the tallest human-made structure for thousands of years world-ancient-egypt Khufu Pharaoh who built the Great Pyramid world-ancient-egypt Sphinx Giant statue with a lion's body and a human head at Giza world-ancient-egypt Giza Site near Cairo with the three famous pyramids world-ancient-egypt Imhotep Architect of the first step pyramid, later honored as a god of healing world-ancient-egypt Step Pyramid of Djoser Egypt's first large stone pyramid, at Saqqara world-ancient-egypt Mummy A preserved body wrapped in cloth world-ancient-egypt Mummification Process of drying and wrapping a body so it would last world-ancient-egypt Embalmer Priest who prepared a body for burial world-ancient-egypt Canopic jars Jars that held organs removed from a mummy world-ancient-egypt Sarcophagus Stone coffin world-ancient-egypt Afterlife Life believed to follow death world-ancient-egypt Book of the Dead Spells and prayers placed in tombs to guide the dead world-ancient-egypt Valley of the Kings Burial place of New Kingdom pharaohs near Luxor world-ancient-egypt Tutankhamun Boy pharaoh whose nearly untouched tomb was found in 1922 world-ancient-egypt Howard Carter British archaeologist who found Tutankhamun's tomb world-ancient-egypt Hatshepsut Female pharaoh who sent a famous trading expedition to Punt world-ancient-egypt Ramses II Pharaoh who ruled for 66 years and built many monuments world-ancient-egypt Akhenaten Pharaoh who promoted worship of one sun disk, Aten world-ancient-egypt Nefertiti Queen and wife of Akhenaten, known for a famous bust world-ancient-egypt Cleopatra VII Last active ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt world-ancient-egypt Ptolemaic Dynasty Greek-speaking family that ruled Egypt after Alexander the Great world-ancient-egypt Hieroglyphs Egyptian picture writing world-ancient-egypt Rosetta Stone Slab with the same text in three scripts, which helped decode hieroglyphs world-ancient-egypt Jean-Francois Champollion French scholar who deciphered hieroglyphs in 1822 world-ancient-egypt Papyrus Paper-like writing material made from a river plant world-ancient-egypt Scribe Trained writer who recorded information world-ancient-egypt Cartouche Oval ring around a royal name in hieroglyphs world-ancient-egypt Ra Sun god, one of the most important Egyptian gods world-ancient-egypt Osiris God of the afterlife and rebirth world-ancient-egypt Isis Goddess of magic and motherhood world-ancient-egypt Horus Sky god shown as a falcon world-ancient-egypt Anubis Jackal-headed god of embalming world-ancient-egypt Thoth God of writing and wisdom world-ancient-egypt Hathor Goddess of music, joy and love world-ancient-egypt Bastet Cat goddess world-ancient-egypt Amun God who became the king of gods in the New Kingdom world-ancient-egypt Ma'at Goddess and idea of truth, balance and justice world-ancient-egypt Temple of Karnak Giant temple complex in Thebes world-ancient-egypt Abu Simbel Temples carved into a cliff by Ramses II world-ancient-egypt Thebes Important southern capital, now Luxor world-ancient-egypt Memphis Ancient capital near modern Cairo world-ancient-egypt Obelisk Tall four-sided stone pillar topped with a point world-ancient-egypt Inundation The Nile's yearly flood world-ancient-egypt Silt Fine, rich soil left behind by the flood world-ancient-egypt Shaduf Tool with a bucket on a pole used to lift water for fields world-ancient-egypt Irrigation Bringing water to crops by canals world-ancient-egypt Emmer wheat Ancient grain used to make bread world-ancient-egypt Linen Cloth made from flax, common in Egyptian clothing world-ancient-egypt Kohl Dark eye makeup that also helped reduce glare world-ancient-egypt Senet Popular Egyptian board game world-ancient-egypt Cataracts of the Nile Rocky rapids that made some stretches hard to sail world-ancient-egypt Nubia Land to Egypt's south, a trade partner and sometimes rival world-ancient-egypt Kush Powerful Nubian kingdom whose rulers once ruled Egypt world-ancient-egypt Hyksos Foreign rulers who controlled northern Egypt around 1650 BCE world-ancient-egypt Chariot Light two-wheeled cart pulled by horses, used in war world-ancient-egypt Sea Peoples Groups of raiders who troubled Mediterranean lands around 1200 BCE world-ancient-egypt Alexander the Great Conquered Egypt in 332 BCE world-ancient-egypt Alexandria City founded by Alexander; home of a famous library and lighthouse world-ancient-egypt Pharos of Alexandria Great lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders world-ancient-egypt Roman conquest of Egypt Egypt became part of the Roman Empire in 30 BCE world-ancient-egypt Cat in Egypt Cats were honored and protected world-ancient-egypt Deben Weight unit used in trading goods world-ancient-egypt Barter Trading goods without coins, as Egyptians often did world-ancient-egypt Social pyramid Pharaoh at the top, then nobles and priests, scribes, craftspeople, farmers world-ancient-egypt Soldier Army member; some became wealthy in the New Kingdom world-ancient-egypt Peasant farmers Most people; worked the land and helped build monuments in the flood season world-ancient-egypt Pyramid workers Paid, fed Egyptians who built the pyramids, not slaves as is commonly said world-ancient-egypt Ankh Symbol meaning life world-ancient-egypt Polis A Greek city-state with its own government world-ancient-greece Acropolis High hill in a Greek city with temples; the Parthenon is on Athens's world-ancient-greece Parthenon Temple to Athena in Athens, built in the 400s BCE world-ancient-greece Agora Open marketplace and meeting place world-ancient-greece Athens City-state known for democracy, art and learning world-ancient-greece Sparta City-state known for its strong military world-ancient-greece Democracy Government by the people; began in Athens world-ancient-greece Cleisthenes Athenian leader who set up reforms that began democracy, about 508 BCE world-ancient-greece Citizen (Athens) Free adult male born to Athenian parents; women and enslaved people could not vote world-ancient-greece Assembly Athenian meeting where citizens voted on laws world-ancient-greece Pericles Athenian leader in the Golden Age who sponsored the Parthenon world-ancient-greece Golden Age of Athens The 400s BCE, rich in art, theater and ideas world-ancient-greece Oligarchy Rule by a few people, as in Sparta world-ancient-greece Tyrant A ruler who took power without a legal right world-ancient-greece Helots Enslaved people who farmed for Spartans world-ancient-greece Spartan training Boys left home around age seven to train in the military school called the agoge world-ancient-greece Persian Wars Greek city-states fought Persia from 499 to 449 BCE world-ancient-greece Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) Athens defeated a Persian force world-ancient-greece Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) 300 Spartans and allies held a narrow pass against Persia world-ancient-greece Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) Greek ships won a sea battle against Persia world-ancient-greece Delian League Alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens world-ancient-greece Peloponnesian War War between Athens and Sparta, 431-404 BCE; Sparta won world-ancient-greece Socrates Philosopher who taught by asking questions world-ancient-greece Socratic method Learning by asking and answering questions world-ancient-greece Plato Student of Socrates who founded the Academy world-ancient-greece Aristotle Student of Plato and teacher of Alexander; studied nearly every subject world-ancient-greece Philosophy Greek for 'love of wisdom' world-ancient-greece Hippocrates Physician called the father of medicine world-ancient-greece Euclid Mathematician who wrote Elements, a famous geometry book world-ancient-greece Pythagoras Greek thinker famous for the relationship of the sides of right triangles world-ancient-greece Archimedes Greek scientist and inventor from Syracuse who explained levers and buoyancy world-ancient-greece Herodotus Writer called the father of history world-ancient-greece Thucydides Historian who wrote about the Peloponnesian War world-ancient-greece Homer Poet traditionally credited with the Iliad and the Odyssey world-ancient-greece Iliad Epic poem about the Trojan War world-ancient-greece Odyssey Epic poem about Odysseus's long trip home world-ancient-greece Trojan Horse Giant wooden horse in the myth used to enter Troy world-ancient-greece Aesop Storyteller linked with fables like the Tortoise and the Hare world-ancient-greece Sophocles Playwright who wrote Oedipus Rex world-ancient-greece Greek tragedy Serious plays about heroes and their downfall world-ancient-greece Greek comedy Funny plays; Aristophanes was a famous writer world-ancient-greece Amphitheater Open-air theater with seats in a curve world-ancient-greece Olympic Games Contests held at Olympia every four years, starting in 776 BCE by tradition world-ancient-greece Olympia Site of the ancient Olympic Games world-ancient-greece Marathon (race) Named for a legendary run from Marathon to Athens world-ancient-greece Zeus King of the gods world-ancient-greece Hera Queen of the gods, goddess of marriage world-ancient-greece Poseidon God of the sea world-ancient-greece Hades God of the underworld world-ancient-greece Athena Goddess of wisdom and crafts; patron of Athens world-ancient-greece Apollo God of music, light and healing world-ancient-greece Artemis Goddess of the hunt and the Moon world-ancient-greece Ares God of war world-ancient-greece Aphrodite Goddess of love and beauty world-ancient-greece Hermes Messenger of the gods world-ancient-greece Demeter Goddess of the harvest world-ancient-greece Dionysus God of wine and theater world-ancient-greece Hephaestus God of fire and metalwork world-ancient-greece Hercules Roman name for Heracles, a hero known for twelve labors world-ancient-greece Perseus Hero who defeated Medusa world-ancient-greece Mount Olympus Tallest mountain in Greece, home of the gods in myth world-ancient-greece Oracle of Delphi Priestess who gave advice thought to come from Apollo world-ancient-greece Myth Traditional story about gods and heroes world-ancient-greece Hoplite Greek foot soldier with shield and spear world-ancient-greece Phalanx Tight formation of soldiers with overlapping shields world-ancient-greece Trireme Greek warship with three rows of oars world-ancient-greece Greek columns Doric, Ionic and Corinthian styles world-ancient-greece Amphora Tall clay jar with two handles world-ancient-greece Alphabet Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet and added vowels world-ancient-greece Philip II King of Macedonia who united Greece world-ancient-greece Alexander the Great Philip's son who conquered Persia and reached India by 326 BCE world-ancient-greece Hellenistic Age Era after Alexander when Greek culture spread across his lands world-ancient-greece Alexandria (Egypt) City Alexander founded; later a center of learning world-ancient-greece Library of Alexandria Famous ancient library in Egypt world-ancient-greece Colossus of Rhodes Giant statue of the sun god, one of the Seven Wonders world-ancient-greece Roman conquest of Greece (146 BCE) Rome took control of Greece world-ancient-greece Women in Athens Could not vote; most worked at home world-ancient-greece Slavery in Greece Enslaved people did much of the labor in many city-states world-ancient-greece Ostracism Vote to send a citizen away from Athens for ten years world-ancient-greece Indus River River in South Asia where an early civilization grew world-ancient-india Indus Valley Civilization Early culture in today's Pakistan and India, about 2600-1900 BCE world-ancient-india Harappa One of the main cities of the Indus Valley Civilization world-ancient-india Mohenjo-daro Major Indus city with a planned layout and a Great Bath world-ancient-india Great Bath Large water tank found at Mohenjo-daro world-ancient-india Grid plan Streets laid out in straight lines, as in Indus cities world-ancient-india Indus script Symbols on seals that have not yet been decoded world-ancient-india Seal Small stone with an image used to mark goods world-ancient-india Drainage Indus cities had covered drains for waste water world-ancient-india Monsoon Seasonal wind that brings heavy rains to South Asia world-ancient-india Himalayas Mountains north of the Indian subcontinent world-ancient-india Ganges River Sacred river in northern India world-ancient-india Subcontinent A large landmass that is part of a continent, like India world-ancient-india Vedic period Era following the Indus cities when the Vedas were composed world-ancient-india Vedas Oldest sacred texts of Hinduism world-ancient-india Sanskrit Ancient language of India used in sacred and scholarly writing world-ancient-india Hinduism Religion with many gods and ideas like karma and dharma world-ancient-india Brahman Hindu idea of the universal spirit world-ancient-india Karma Idea that actions have consequences world-ancient-india Dharma Duty or right way of living world-ancient-india Reincarnation Belief that souls are reborn in new lives world-ancient-india Moksha Release from the cycle of rebirth world-ancient-india Upanishads Texts about the nature of the self and the universe world-ancient-india Mahabharata Long epic poem that includes the Bhagavad Gita world-ancient-india Bhagavad Gita Section of the Mahabharata; a conversation about duty world-ancient-india Ramayana Epic poem about Rama and Sita world-ancient-india Caste system Division of society into groups by birth world-ancient-india Varna Four traditional groupings: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras world-ancient-india Dalits People historically outside the caste system, once called untouchables world-ancient-india Siddhartha Gautama Prince who became the Buddha, about 500s-400s BCE world-ancient-india Buddha Means 'awakened one' world-ancient-india Four Noble Truths Buddhist teaching about suffering and how to end it world-ancient-india Eightfold Path Buddhist guide to right living world-ancient-india Nirvana Peace beyond suffering in Buddhism world-ancient-india Bodh Gaya Place where the Buddha is said to have gained enlightenment world-ancient-india Jainism Religion that strongly stresses nonviolence world-ancient-india Mahavira Teacher who formed Jainism's main teachings world-ancient-india Ahimsa Principle of not harming living beings world-ancient-india Mahajanapadas Sixteen early Indian kingdoms and republics world-ancient-india Alexander in India Alexander the Great reached the Indus region in 326 BCE world-ancient-india Chandragupta Maurya Founded the Maurya Empire, about 321 BCE world-ancient-india Maurya Empire First empire to unite most of India world-ancient-india Ashoka Maurya emperor who embraced Buddhism and nonviolence world-ancient-india Ashoka's edicts Messages carved on pillars and rocks about fair rule world-ancient-india Chakravartin Wheel-turning ruler, an ideal king world-ancient-india Arthashastra Ancient book on government and strategy, linked to Kautilya world-ancient-india Pataliputra Capital of the Maurya Empire world-ancient-india Gupta Empire Dynasty from about 320 to 550 CE, called a golden age world-ancient-india Chandragupta I Founder of the Gupta Empire world-ancient-india Kalidasa Great Sanskrit poet and playwright of the Gupta era world-ancient-india Aryabhata Mathematician and astronomer who wrote about zero and Earth's rotation world-ancient-india Zero Number concept developed in India that made modern math easier world-ancient-india Decimal system Counting in base ten, developed in India world-ancient-india Hindu-Arabic numerals The digits 0 to 9 that came from India and spread through the Arab world world-ancient-india Chess Game that began in India as chaturanga world-ancient-india Iron pillar of Delhi Ancient pillar that has hardly rusted world-ancient-india Ajanta caves Rock-cut Buddhist caves with paintings world-ancient-india Ellora caves Rock-cut temples of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths world-ancient-india Stupa Dome-shaped Buddhist monument world-ancient-india Sushruta Ancient Indian physician known for surgery world-ancient-india Ayurveda Traditional Indian system of medicine world-ancient-india Yoga Practice of body, breath and mind that began in India world-ancient-india Spice trade Pepper and other spices from India were traded to many lands world-ancient-india Silk Road in India Indian goods like cotton, spices and gems moved along trade routes world-ancient-india Delhi Sultanate Muslim rulers in northern India, 1206-1526 world-ancient-india Mughal Empire Empire founded by Babur in 1526 that ruled much of India world-ancient-india Akbar Mughal emperor known for religious tolerance and a strong government world-ancient-india Shah Jahan Mughal emperor who built the Taj Mahal world-ancient-india Taj Mahal White marble tomb in Agra built in the 1600s world-ancient-india British East India Company Trading company that gained great power in India world-ancient-india Mahatma Gandhi Led India's nonviolent independence movement world-ancient-india Indian independence (1947) India gained freedom from British rule and was partitioned into India and Pakistan world-ancient-india Partition (1947) Division of British India into India and Pakistan world-ancient-india Diwali Festival of lights, celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains world-ancient-india Sikhism Religion founded by Guru Nanak in the 1400s in Punjab world-ancient-india Rome City on the Tiber River in Italy that grew into a huge empire world-ancient-rome Romulus and Remus Twin brothers in legend who founded Rome in 753 BCE world-ancient-rome Roman Republic Government with elected officials, from 509 BCE to 27 BCE world-ancient-rome Roman Empire Rome ruled by emperors, beginning in 27 BCE world-ancient-rome Senate Council of powerful Romans who advised leaders and made laws world-ancient-rome Consul One of two elected leaders of the Republic each year world-ancient-rome Patricians Wealthy, noble Roman families world-ancient-rome Plebeians Ordinary Roman citizens world-ancient-rome Tribune Official who protected the rights of plebeians world-ancient-rome Twelve Tables Rome's first written laws, about 450 BCE world-ancient-rome Punic Wars Three wars between Rome and Carthage, 264-146 BCE world-ancient-rome Carthage City in North Africa that rivaled Rome world-ancient-rome Hannibal Carthaginian general who crossed the Alps with war elephants world-ancient-rome Scipio Africanus Roman general who defeated Hannibal at Zama in 202 BCE world-ancient-rome Julius Caesar General and leader who won Gaul and ruled Rome as dictator world-ancient-rome Crossing the Rubicon Caesar's 49 BCE move into Italy with his army, starting a civil war world-ancient-rome Ides of March March 15, 44 BCE, when Caesar was killed by senators world-ancient-rome Dictator (Rome) A leader given emergency power for a limited time world-ancient-rome Gaul Roman name for lands in modern France world-ancient-rome Mark Antony Roman general who allied with Cleopatra world-ancient-rome Augustus Rome's first emperor; formerly Octavian world-ancient-rome Octavian Caesar's adopted heir, who became Augustus world-ancient-rome Pax Romana About 200 years of relative peace and prosperity, starting under Augustus world-ancient-rome Tiberius Augustus's successor, second emperor world-ancient-rome Nero Emperor during the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE world-ancient-rome Trajan Emperor under whom the empire was largest, in 117 CE world-ancient-rome Hadrian Emperor who built a wall across northern Britain world-ancient-rome Marcus Aurelius Emperor and philosopher who wrote Meditations world-ancient-rome Constantine Emperor who moved the capital to Constantinople and ended the persecution of Christians world-ancient-rome Constantinople New eastern capital, now Istanbul world-ancient-rome Diocletian Emperor who split rule of the empire for easier control world-ancient-rome Fall of Rome (476 CE) Date often used for the end of the Western Roman Empire world-ancient-rome Byzantine Empire Eastern Roman Empire that lasted until 1453 world-ancient-rome Latin Language of Rome; parent of Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian world-ancient-rome Roman numerals Number system using I, V, X, L, C, D and M world-ancient-rome Legion Main Roman army unit of about 5,000 soldiers world-ancient-rome Legionary Roman soldier world-ancient-rome Centurion Officer in charge of about 80 soldiers world-ancient-rome Gladius Short sword used by Roman soldiers world-ancient-rome Testudo Formation where soldiers locked shields into a shell world-ancient-rome Roman roads Paved roads that connected the empire; 'all roads lead to Rome' world-ancient-rome Aqueduct Bridge-like channel that carried water to cities world-ancient-rome Arch Curved structure the Romans used widely in buildings world-ancient-rome Concrete Strong building material the Romans developed world-ancient-rome Colosseum Huge arena in Rome for public shows, finished in 80 CE world-ancient-rome Gladiator Fighter who entertained crowds in arenas world-ancient-rome Circus Maximus Large Roman racetrack for chariots world-ancient-rome Forum Public square and center of Roman life world-ancient-rome Pantheon Roman temple with a famous domed roof, rebuilt around 126 CE world-ancient-rome Baths Public places to wash, relax and meet people world-ancient-rome Toga Draped garment worn by Roman citizens world-ancient-rome Villa Large country house of wealthy Romans world-ancient-rome Insula Apartment building for ordinary city residents world-ancient-rome Slavery in Rome Millions of people were enslaved; many were prisoners of war world-ancient-rome Spartacus Gladiator who led a large slave revolt from 73 to 71 BCE world-ancient-rome Jupiter King of the Roman gods world-ancient-rome Juno Queen of the gods world-ancient-rome Mars Roman god of war world-ancient-rome Venus Roman goddess of love world-ancient-rome Neptune Roman god of the sea world-ancient-rome Minerva Roman goddess of wisdom world-ancient-rome Pompeii Roman city buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE world-ancient-rome Mount Vesuvius Volcano near Naples that destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum world-ancient-rome Pliny the Younger Roman who wrote an eyewitness account of the Vesuvius eruption world-ancient-rome Virgil Poet who wrote the Aeneid world-ancient-rome Aeneid Epic poem about Aeneas, a Trojan hero linked to Rome's founding world-ancient-rome Cicero Famous Roman speaker and writer world-ancient-rome Christianity in Rome Spread through the empire and became the official religion in 380 CE world-ancient-rome Edict of Milan (313 CE) Declared tolerance for Christians world-ancient-rome Roman law Basis for many modern legal ideas, such as being innocent until proven guilty world-ancient-rome Republic's check and balance Two consuls could each veto the other world-ancient-rome Citizenship Rome gradually extended citizenship to many conquered peoples world-ancient-rome Mare Nostrum Latin for 'our sea', Rome's name for the Mediterranean world-ancient-rome Visigoths Germanic people who sacked Rome in 410 CE world-ancient-rome Attila the Hun Leader of the Huns who threatened Rome in the 400s world-ancient-rome Romulus Augustulus Last emperor of the Western Roman Empire world-ancient-rome Roman calendar Julius Caesar introduced the 365-day Julian calendar in 45 BCE world-ancient-rome Month names July is named for Julius Caesar and August for Augustus world-ancient-rome Hadrian's Wall Defensive wall in northern England built from 122 CE world-ancient-rome Enlightenment 18th-century movement that valued reason, science and individual rights world-enlightenment-revolutions Age of Reason Another name for the Enlightenment world-enlightenment-revolutions John Locke English thinker who argued people have natural rights to life, liberty and property world-enlightenment-revolutions Natural rights Rights people have simply by being human world-enlightenment-revolutions Social contract Idea that governments get their power from agreement with the governed world-enlightenment-revolutions Thomas Hobbes Wrote Leviathan; argued people need a strong ruler to avoid chaos world-enlightenment-revolutions Montesquieu French thinker who urged separation of powers world-enlightenment-revolutions Separation of powers Dividing government into branches so none has too much power world-enlightenment-revolutions Voltaire French writer who defended freedom of speech and religion world-enlightenment-revolutions Jean-Jacques Rousseau Wrote The Social Contract; said the general will of the people should rule world-enlightenment-revolutions Mary Wollstonecraft Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) world-enlightenment-revolutions Adam Smith Wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776), about markets and free trade world-enlightenment-revolutions Isaac Newton Described gravity and the laws of motion world-enlightenment-revolutions Scientific Revolution Era of new discoveries in astronomy, physics and medicine world-enlightenment-revolutions Salons Gatherings where thinkers discussed ideas world-enlightenment-revolutions Encyclopedia Diderot edited a French encyclopedia collecting knowledge world-enlightenment-revolutions Enlightened despots Rulers who followed some Enlightenment ideas but kept power, like Catherine the Great world-enlightenment-revolutions Absolute monarchy Government where a king or queen has total power world-enlightenment-revolutions Louis XIV French Sun King, ruled 1643-1715, built Versailles world-enlightenment-revolutions Versailles Grand palace outside Paris world-enlightenment-revolutions English Civil War 1642-1651 conflict between king and Parliament world-enlightenment-revolutions Glorious Revolution (1688) Parliament replaced King James II with William and Mary peacefully world-enlightenment-revolutions English Bill of Rights (1689) Limited the monarch's power and protected Parliament's rights world-enlightenment-revolutions Constitutional monarchy King or queen with powers limited by law world-enlightenment-revolutions American Revolution Colonies won independence from Britain, 1775-1783 world-enlightenment-revolutions French Revolution 1789 uprising that ended the monarchy in France world-enlightenment-revolutions Estates Three social groups in France: clergy, nobles and everyone else world-enlightenment-revolutions Third Estate Common people, the vast majority of the French population world-enlightenment-revolutions Estates-General French assembly called in 1789 that began the Revolution world-enlightenment-revolutions National Assembly Group formed by the Third Estate in 1789 world-enlightenment-revolutions Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) Crowd attacked a Paris prison, a symbol of royal power world-enlightenment-revolutions Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 1789 French document of rights world-enlightenment-revolutions Liberty, equality, fraternity Slogan of the French Revolution world-enlightenment-revolutions Louis XVI French king executed in 1793 world-enlightenment-revolutions Marie Antoinette Queen of France, executed in 1793 world-enlightenment-revolutions Guillotine Device used for executions during the Revolution world-enlightenment-revolutions Reign of Terror (1793-94) Period of extreme violence led by Robespierre world-enlightenment-revolutions Robespierre Revolutionary leader of the Terror, later executed world-enlightenment-revolutions Napoleon Bonaparte Army general who took power in France in 1799 world-enlightenment-revolutions Napoleonic Code French legal code that spread ideas of legal equality world-enlightenment-revolutions Emperor Napoleon Crowned himself emperor in 1804 world-enlightenment-revolutions Battle of Waterloo (1815) Napoleon's final defeat, in Belgium world-enlightenment-revolutions Duke of Wellington British commander who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo world-enlightenment-revolutions Congress of Vienna (1815) European leaders tried to restore order after Napoleon world-enlightenment-revolutions Haitian Revolution Enslaved people in Haiti rebelled and won independence in 1804 world-enlightenment-revolutions Toussaint Louverture Leader of the Haitian Revolution world-enlightenment-revolutions Haiti First nation led by formerly enslaved people to win independence world-enlightenment-revolutions Simon Bolivar Led independence movements in northern South America world-enlightenment-revolutions Jose de San Martin Led liberation efforts in Argentina, Chile and Peru world-enlightenment-revolutions Miguel Hidalgo Priest who began Mexico's fight for independence in 1810 world-enlightenment-revolutions Mexican independence Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 world-enlightenment-revolutions Brazil's independence Declared in 1822 by Pedro I world-enlightenment-revolutions Revolutions of 1848 Uprisings across Europe demanding liberal reforms world-enlightenment-revolutions Nationalism Strong pride in one's nation world-enlightenment-revolutions Unification of Italy Italy became one kingdom in 1861 with leaders like Garibaldi and Cavour world-enlightenment-revolutions Giuseppe Garibaldi Italian general who led volunteers to take Sicily and Naples in 1860 world-enlightenment-revolutions Otto von Bismarck Prussian statesman who united Germany in 1871 world-enlightenment-revolutions German Empire (1871) Formed after the Franco-Prussian War world-enlightenment-revolutions Liberalism Belief in individual freedom and limited government world-enlightenment-revolutions Conservatism Belief in tradition and gradual change world-enlightenment-revolutions Romanticism Art and literature stressing feeling, nature and imagination world-enlightenment-revolutions Abolition of slave trade Britain banned the slave trade in 1807 and slavery in its empire in 1833 world-enlightenment-revolutions William Wilberforce British politician who campaigned against the slave trade world-enlightenment-revolutions Olympe de Gouges French writer of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1791) world-enlightenment-revolutions Tennis Court Oath Third Estate members swore in 1789 not to separate until France had a constitution world-enlightenment-revolutions Bourgeoisie Middle class of merchants and professionals world-enlightenment-revolutions Sans-culottes Working-class Parisian revolutionaries world-enlightenment-revolutions Directory Five-man government that ruled France from 1795 to 1799 world-enlightenment-revolutions Metric system Created in revolutionary France, based on tens world-enlightenment-revolutions Catherine the Great Russian empress (1762-1796) who corresponded with Voltaire world-enlightenment-revolutions Frederick the Great King of Prussia, supporter of the arts and reforms world-enlightenment-revolutions Age of Exploration Period from about 1400 to 1700 when Europeans sailed across oceans world-explorers-age-of-exploration Prince Henry the Navigator Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages along Africa's coast world-explorers-age-of-exploration Bartolomeu Dias First European to sail around Africa's southern tip, 1488 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Vasco da Gama Portuguese explorer who reached India by sea in 1498 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Christopher Columbus Italian sailor who crossed the Atlantic for Spain in 1492 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Columbus's ships The Nina, the Pinta and the Santa Maria world-explorers-age-of-exploration Isabella and Ferdinand Spain's rulers who funded Columbus world-explorers-age-of-exploration San Salvador Island in the Bahamas where Columbus landed in 1492 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Columbian Exchange Movement of plants, animals, people and diseases between the Americas and the Old World world-explorers-age-of-exploration Diseases in the Americas Smallpox and other European illnesses killed many Native people world-explorers-age-of-exploration Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Spain and Portugal divided newly found lands world-explorers-age-of-exploration Amerigo Vespucci Explorer whose first name gave America its name world-explorers-age-of-exploration John Cabot Italian explorer sailing for England who reached North America in 1497 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Vasco Nunez de Balboa First European to see the Pacific from the Americas, 1513 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Ferdinand Magellan Led the first voyage to sail around the world, 1519-1522 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Juan Sebastian Elcano Completed Magellan's voyage after Magellan died in 1521 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Strait of Magellan Passage near South America's southern tip world-explorers-age-of-exploration Circumnavigation Sailing all the way around the world world-explorers-age-of-exploration Hernan Cortes Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire in 1519-1521 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who defeated the Inca in the 1530s world-explorers-age-of-exploration Conquistador Spanish soldier-explorer who conquered lands in the Americas world-explorers-age-of-exploration Ponce de Leon Spanish explorer who explored Florida in 1513 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Hernando de Soto Spanish explorer who traveled through the southeastern US, 1539-1542 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Francisco Coronado Spanish explorer who searched the Southwest for cities of gold world-explorers-age-of-exploration Jacques Cartier French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence River in the 1530s world-explorers-age-of-exploration Samuel de Champlain Founded Quebec in 1608 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Henry Hudson English explorer who explored the Hudson River in 1609 for the Dutch world-explorers-age-of-exploration Northwest Passage Hoped-for water route through North America to Asia world-explorers-age-of-exploration La Salle French explorer who traveled down the Mississippi in 1682 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Marquette and Joliet French explorers who traveled the upper Mississippi in 1673 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Walter Raleigh English courtier who sponsored the Roanoke colonies world-explorers-age-of-exploration Francis Drake English sea captain who sailed around the world, 1577-1580 world-explorers-age-of-exploration James Cook English navigator who mapped Pacific coasts including New Zealand and Hawaii in the 1700s world-explorers-age-of-exploration Abel Tasman Dutch explorer who sighted Tasmania and New Zealand in 1642 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Zheng He Chinese admiral whose fleets reached East Africa in the early 1400s world-explorers-age-of-exploration Ibn Battuta Muslim scholar who traveled across Africa and Asia in the 1300s world-explorers-age-of-exploration Marco Polo Venetian merchant who traveled in Asia in the late 1200s world-explorers-age-of-exploration Leif Erikson Norse explorer who reached North America about 1000 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Viking Vinland Name the Norse gave to the land they reached in North America world-explorers-age-of-exploration L'Anse aux Meadows Norse site in Newfoundland, proof of an early landing world-explorers-age-of-exploration Sacagawea Shoshone woman who guided Lewis and Clark world-explorers-age-of-exploration Lewis and Clark Explored the Louisiana Purchase and reached the Pacific, 1804-1806 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Matthew Henson Black explorer who traveled with Robert Peary to the Arctic world-explorers-age-of-exploration Robert Peary Led expeditions toward the North Pole in the early 1900s world-explorers-age-of-exploration Roald Amundsen Norwegian explorer, first to reach the South Pole, 1911 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Ernest Shackleton Led the Endurance expedition to Antarctica (1914-1917); all his men survived world-explorers-age-of-exploration Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay First climbers confirmed to reach Mount Everest's summit, 1953 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Jacques Cousteau French ocean explorer who co-invented the Aqualung world-explorers-age-of-exploration Neil Armstrong First person on the Moon, 1969 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Sally Ride First American woman in space, 1983 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Mae Jemison First Black woman in space, 1992 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Valentina Tereshkova First woman in space, 1963 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Yuri Gagarin First human in space, 1961 world-explorers-age-of-exploration Gold, God and glory Three motives often given for European exploration world-explorers-age-of-exploration Caravel Small, fast Portuguese ship used for exploring world-explorers-age-of-exploration Astrolabe Tool for finding latitude using the stars or Sun world-explorers-age-of-exploration Compass Magnetic tool for finding direction world-explorers-age-of-exploration Latitude Distance north or south of the equator world-explorers-age-of-exploration Longitude Distance east or west of the prime meridian world-explorers-age-of-exploration Navigator Person who plans a ship's course world-explorers-age-of-exploration Cartographer Mapmaker world-explorers-age-of-exploration Mercator map 1569 map by Gerardus Mercator, useful for sailors world-explorers-age-of-exploration Spice Islands Islands in today's Indonesia that produced cloves and nutmeg world-explorers-age-of-exploration Mercantilism Idea that colonies exist to enrich the home country world-explorers-age-of-exploration Colony Territory settled and controlled by another country world-explorers-age-of-exploration Transatlantic slave trade Forced movement of millions of Africans to the Americas world-explorers-age-of-exploration Potatoes Crop from the Americas that spread to Europe and fed millions world-explorers-age-of-exploration Tomatoes, corn and chocolate Foods that came to Europe from the Americas world-explorers-age-of-exploration Horses in the Americas Spanish brought horses, which changed life on the Plains world-explorers-age-of-exploration Wheat and sugar to the Americas Old World crops carried across the Atlantic world-explorers-age-of-exploration Smallpox Disease that devastated Native communities after contact world-explorers-age-of-exploration Sumerian cities appear About 3500 BCE world-history-key-dates Egypt unified under the first pharaoh About 3100 BCE world-history-key-dates Great Pyramid of Giza built About 2560 BCE world-history-key-dates Code of Hammurabi About 1754 BCE world-history-key-dates Tutankhamun rules Egypt About 1332-1323 BCE world-history-key-dates First Olympic Games (traditional date) 776 BCE world-history-key-dates Rome founded (traditional date) 753 BCE world-history-key-dates Rome becomes a republic 509 BCE world-history-key-dates Athens develops democracy About 508 BCE world-history-key-dates Battle of Marathon 490 BCE world-history-key-dates Parthenon built 447-432 BCE world-history-key-dates Alexander the Great's reign 336-323 BCE world-history-key-dates Qin unifies China 221 BCE world-history-key-dates Han Dynasty begins 206 BCE world-history-key-dates Julius Caesar assassinated 44 BCE world-history-key-dates Augustus becomes first Roman emperor 27 BCE world-history-key-dates Vesuvius buries Pompeii 79 CE world-history-key-dates Constantine legalizes Christianity 313 CE world-history-key-dates Western Roman Empire ends 476 CE world-history-key-dates Muhammad's migration to Medina (Hijra) 622 CE world-history-key-dates Charlemagne crowned emperor 800 CE world-history-key-dates Norman conquest of England 1066 world-history-key-dates First Crusade begins 1096 world-history-key-dates Magna Carta 1215 world-history-key-dates Genghis Khan unites the Mongols 1206 world-history-key-dates Mansa Musa's pilgrimage 1324 world-history-key-dates Black Death in Europe 1347-1351 world-history-key-dates Joan of Arc at Orleans 1429 world-history-key-dates Printing press in Europe About 1450 world-history-key-dates Fall of Constantinople 1453 world-history-key-dates Columbus reaches the Americas 1492 world-history-key-dates Vasco da Gama reaches India 1498 world-history-key-dates Luther's 95 Theses 1517 world-history-key-dates Cortes conquers the Aztec 1521 world-history-key-dates Magellan's fleet circles the globe 1519-1522 world-history-key-dates Spanish Armada defeated 1588 world-history-key-dates Shakespeare's life 1564-1616 world-history-key-dates Taj Mahal begun 1632 world-history-key-dates Newton's Principia 1687 world-history-key-dates Glorious Revolution 1688 world-history-key-dates American Revolution 1775-1783 world-history-key-dates French Revolution begins 1789 world-history-key-dates Haiti becomes independent 1804 world-history-key-dates Napoleon defeated at Waterloo 1815 world-history-key-dates Latin American independence wars 1810s-1820s world-history-key-dates Revolutions of 1848 1848 world-history-key-dates Meiji Restoration in Japan 1868 world-history-key-dates Unification of Germany 1871 world-history-key-dates Scramble for Africa begins 1880s world-history-key-dates World War I 1914-1918 world-history-key-dates Russian Revolution 1917 world-history-key-dates Great Depression begins 1929 world-history-key-dates World War II 1939-1945 world-history-key-dates Indian independence 1947 world-history-key-dates People's Republic of China founded 1949 world-history-key-dates Sputnik launched 1957 world-history-key-dates Most African countries gain independence 1950s-1960s world-history-key-dates Berlin Wall built 1961 world-history-key-dates Berlin Wall falls 1989 world-history-key-dates Soviet Union ends 1991 world-history-key-dates End of apartheid and Mandela elected 1994 world-history-key-dates Euro introduced 1999 (coins and notes in 2002) world-history-key-dates First iPhone released 2007 world-history-key-dates Roman Republic ends 27 BCE world-history-key-dates Inca Empire falls to Spain 1532-1533 world-history-key-dates Mongol Empire reaches China 1271 (Yuan Dynasty) world-history-key-dates Ming Dynasty founded 1368 world-history-key-dates Mughal Empire founded 1526 world-history-key-dates Ottoman Empire founded About 1299 world-history-key-dates Industrial Revolution Shift from hand-made goods to machine production, starting in Britain in the 1700s world-industrial-revolution Why Britain first Coal and iron, capital, colonies, rivers and stable government world-industrial-revolution Textile industry Cloth-making; the first big factory industry world-industrial-revolution Spinning jenny James Hargreaves's machine (about 1764) that spun many threads at once world-industrial-revolution Water frame Richard Arkwright's water-powered spinning machine world-industrial-revolution Power loom Edmund Cartwright's machine for weaving cloth world-industrial-revolution Cotton gin Eli Whitney's 1793 invention for cleaning cotton world-industrial-revolution Flying shuttle John Kay's 1733 loom improvement world-industrial-revolution Steam engine Machine that turns heat into motion; James Watt improved it in the 1770s world-industrial-revolution James Watt Scottish engineer who made the steam engine efficient world-industrial-revolution Thomas Newcomen Built an early steam engine for pumping water from mines world-industrial-revolution Coal Main fuel of the Industrial Revolution world-industrial-revolution Iron and steel Key materials for machines, rails and bridges world-industrial-revolution Abraham Darby Found a way to smelt iron using coke world-industrial-revolution Bessemer process Method for cheap, large-scale steel production from the 1850s world-industrial-revolution Factory system Workers gather in one place to use powered machines world-industrial-revolution Division of labor Splitting a job into small steps, each done by a different worker world-industrial-revolution Interchangeable parts Standard-sized pieces that fit any copy of a product world-industrial-revolution Mass production Making goods in large numbers world-industrial-revolution Assembly line Workers add parts as a product moves down a line world-industrial-revolution Locomotive Self-moving steam engine for pulling trains world-industrial-revolution George Stephenson British engineer who built early railways and the Rocket locomotive world-industrial-revolution Railroad Rail line for trains; sped trade and travel world-industrial-revolution Steamboat Robert Fulton made steamboats practical in 1807 world-industrial-revolution Canals Man-made waterways for moving goods world-industrial-revolution Telegraph Samuel Morse's electrical message system, 1840s world-industrial-revolution Telephone Alexander Graham Bell's 1876 patent world-industrial-revolution Electric light Thomas Edison developed a practical bulb in 1879 world-industrial-revolution Alternating current Electric current type championed by George Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla world-industrial-revolution Michael Faraday Scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction world-industrial-revolution Second Industrial Revolution Late 1800s boom in steel, oil, chemicals and electricity world-industrial-revolution Urbanization Movement of people from farms to cities world-industrial-revolution Slums Crowded poor neighborhoods world-industrial-revolution Working conditions Factory work meant long hours, low pay and danger world-industrial-revolution Child labor Children worked in factories and mines world-industrial-revolution Factory Acts British laws limiting working hours, especially for children world-industrial-revolution Trade union Group of workers organizing for better conditions world-industrial-revolution Luddites Workers who destroyed machines that threatened their jobs, 1811-1816 world-industrial-revolution Capitalism Economic system of private ownership and profit world-industrial-revolution Socialism Idea that workers or the community should own the means of production world-industrial-revolution Karl Marx Wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) with Friedrich Engels world-industrial-revolution Charles Dickens Novelist who wrote about poverty in Victorian England world-industrial-revolution Middle class Growing group of factory owners, managers and professionals world-industrial-revolution Working class People who work in factories and mills world-industrial-revolution Public health Cities built sewers and clean water supplies after outbreaks like cholera world-industrial-revolution John Snow Physician who traced a London cholera outbreak in 1854 to a water pump world-industrial-revolution Edward Jenner Created the smallpox vaccine in 1796 world-industrial-revolution Louis Pasteur Showed that germs cause disease and developed vaccines world-industrial-revolution Florence Nightingale Nurse who improved hospital hygiene in the Crimean War world-industrial-revolution Agricultural Revolution Better farming methods that freed workers for factories world-industrial-revolution Enclosure Fencing in common land, which pushed many farmers off the land world-industrial-revolution Seed drill Jethro Tull's machine for planting seeds in rows world-industrial-revolution Crop rotation Changing crops each year to keep soil rich world-industrial-revolution Reaper Cyrus McCormick's machine for harvesting grain (1830s) world-industrial-revolution Spread to America Samuel Slater built a cotton mill in Rhode Island in 1790 world-industrial-revolution Lowell mill girls Young women who worked in Massachusetts textile mills world-industrial-revolution Industrial Japan Japan rapidly industrialized after the Meiji Restoration of 1868 world-industrial-revolution Imperialism Strong nations taking control of other lands to get materials and markets world-industrial-revolution Raw materials Natural resources like cotton, rubber and metal used to make goods world-industrial-revolution Great Exhibition (1851) Showcase of industry held in London's Crystal Palace world-industrial-revolution Crystal Palace Iron-and-glass building made for the Great Exhibition world-industrial-revolution Suez Canal (1869) Canal across Egypt linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea world-industrial-revolution Transcontinental railroad US railroad completed in 1869 world-industrial-revolution Trans-Siberian Railway Russian railroad begun in 1891 linking Moscow to the Pacific world-industrial-revolution Standard time Railroads led to time zones, set in the US in 1883 world-industrial-revolution Department store New kind of large store that appeared in cities world-industrial-revolution Consumer goods Products bought by ordinary people world-industrial-revolution Patent Government grant giving an inventor sole rights to an invention world-industrial-revolution Telegraph cable Transatlantic cable first worked in 1858 and was reliable by 1866 world-industrial-revolution Oil Drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859; later fueled engines world-industrial-revolution Internal combustion engine Engine that burns fuel inside cylinders to power cars world-industrial-revolution Automobile Karl Benz built an early practical car in 1885-86 world-industrial-revolution Fire control Early humans used fire for warmth and cooking, hundreds of thousands of years ago world-inventions-timeline Wheel Mesopotamia, about 3500 BCE world-inventions-timeline Writing Sumer's cuneiform and Egypt's hieroglyphs, about 3200 BCE world-inventions-timeline Plow Early farmers in Mesopotamia and Egypt world-inventions-timeline Bronze Metal alloy of copper and tin, about 3300 BCE world-inventions-timeline Paper China, improved by Cai Lun about 105 CE world-inventions-timeline Papyrus Egyptian writing material from a river plant world-inventions-timeline Alphabet Developed by Phoenician traders, about 1050 BCE world-inventions-timeline Coins Lydia (in modern Turkey), about 600 BCE world-inventions-timeline Aqueduct Romans perfected water-carrying bridges world-inventions-timeline Concrete Romans widely used it in building world-inventions-timeline Compass China, used for navigation by about 1100 CE world-inventions-timeline Gunpowder China, about 900 CE world-inventions-timeline Woodblock printing China, by the 600s-700s CE world-inventions-timeline Movable type Bi Sheng in China (about 1040); Gutenberg in Europe (about 1450) world-inventions-timeline Eyeglasses Italy, late 1200s world-inventions-timeline Mechanical clock Europe, 1200s-1300s world-inventions-timeline Printing press Johannes Gutenberg, about 1450 world-inventions-timeline Telescope Dutch lens makers, about 1608; Galileo improved it world-inventions-timeline Microscope Dutch makers around 1590s; Leeuwenhoek used one to see microbes world-inventions-timeline Thermometer Galileo and others in the early 1600s; Fahrenheit's mercury version in 1714 world-inventions-timeline Barometer Evangelista Torricelli, 1643 world-inventions-timeline Steam engine Newcomen 1712; Watt improved it in the 1770s world-inventions-timeline Lightning rod Benjamin Franklin, 1752 world-inventions-timeline Hot air balloon Montgolfier brothers, 1783 world-inventions-timeline Vaccine Edward Jenner, smallpox vaccine, 1796 world-inventions-timeline Battery Alessandro Volta, 1800 world-inventions-timeline Cotton gin Eli Whitney, 1793 world-inventions-timeline Steamboat Robert Fulton, 1807 world-inventions-timeline Locomotive George Stephenson built practical steam locomotives in the 1810s-1820s world-inventions-timeline Photography Daguerreotype process announced in 1839 world-inventions-timeline Telegraph Samuel Morse, 1830s-1840s world-inventions-timeline Sewing machine Elias Howe, 1846, improved by Isaac Singer world-inventions-timeline Safety elevator Elisha Otis, 1850s world-inventions-timeline Pasteurization Louis Pasteur, 1860s world-inventions-timeline Dynamite Alfred Nobel, 1867 world-inventions-timeline Typewriter Christopher Sholes, 1868 world-inventions-timeline Telephone Alexander Graham Bell, 1876 world-inventions-timeline Phonograph Thomas Edison, 1877 world-inventions-timeline Light bulb Thomas Edison and others, 1879 world-inventions-timeline Automobile Karl Benz, 1885-86 world-inventions-timeline Pneumatic tire John Boyd Dunlop, 1888 world-inventions-timeline Motion pictures Lumiere brothers, 1895 world-inventions-timeline Radio Guglielmo Marconi's wireless telegraph, 1890s world-inventions-timeline X-rays Wilhelm Rontgen, 1895 world-inventions-timeline Airplane Wright brothers, 1903 world-inventions-timeline Model T Henry Ford, 1908 world-inventions-timeline Zipper Gideon Sundback improved it in 1913 world-inventions-timeline Television Philo Farnsworth demonstrated all-electronic TV in 1927 world-inventions-timeline Penicillin Alexander Fleming, 1928 world-inventions-timeline Jet engine Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain, 1930s world-inventions-timeline Helicopter Igor Sikorsky's practical helicopter, 1939-1940 world-inventions-timeline Computer (ENIAC) First large general-purpose electronic computer, 1945 world-inventions-timeline Transistor Bell Labs, 1947 world-inventions-timeline Microwave oven Percy Spencer, 1945-47 world-inventions-timeline Polio vaccine Jonas Salk, 1955 world-inventions-timeline Satellite Sputnik 1, 1957 world-inventions-timeline Integrated circuit Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, late 1950s world-inventions-timeline Laser Theodore Maiman built the first working laser in 1960 world-inventions-timeline Moon landing Apollo 11, 1969 world-inventions-timeline ARPANET Early network that led to the Internet, 1969 world-inventions-timeline Email Ray Tomlinson sent the first network email in 1971 world-inventions-timeline Personal computer Altair 8800 (1975); Apple II (1977) world-inventions-timeline Cell phone Martin Cooper made the first handheld mobile phone call in 1973 world-inventions-timeline Compact disc Introduced in 1982 world-inventions-timeline World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee, 1989-1991 world-inventions-timeline Web browser Mosaic in 1993 helped the Web take off world-inventions-timeline GPS US satellite navigation system fully operational in the 1990s world-inventions-timeline Smartphone Early models in the 1990s; iPhone in 2007 world-inventions-timeline 3D printing Chuck Hull invented stereolithography in 1984 world-inventions-timeline Inventor of the safety pin Walter Hunt, 1849 world-inventions-timeline Inventor of the Braille system Louis Braille, 1820s world-inventions-timeline Inventor of the stethoscope Rene Laennec, 1816 world-inventions-timeline Inventor of the bifocal lens Benjamin Franklin, around 1784 world-inventions-timeline Inventor of the crayon Binney & Smith began making Crayola crayons in 1903 world-inventions-timeline Inventor of basketball James Naismith, 1891 world-inventions-timeline Inventor of the traffic light signal Garrett Morgan patented an improved signal in 1923 world-inventions-timeline Inventor of the Super Soaker Lonnie Johnson, 1980s world-inventions-timeline Islam Monotheistic religion that began in Arabia in the 600s CE world-islamic-golden-age Muslim A follower of Islam world-islamic-golden-age Muhammad Prophet of Islam, born in Mecca around 570 CE world-islamic-golden-age Mecca Holy city in Arabia where Muhammad was born; the Kaaba is there world-islamic-golden-age Medina City where Muhammad moved in 622 CE world-islamic-golden-age Hijra The 622 journey from Mecca to Medina; Year 1 of the Islamic calendar world-islamic-golden-age Quran Holy book of Islam world-islamic-golden-age Allah Arabic word for God world-islamic-golden-age Five Pillars of Islam Faith, prayer, charity, fasting and pilgrimage world-islamic-golden-age Shahada Statement of faith world-islamic-golden-age Salat Prayer five times a day world-islamic-golden-age Zakat Giving to people in need world-islamic-golden-age Sawm Fasting during the month of Ramadan world-islamic-golden-age Hajj Pilgrimage to Mecca, expected once in a lifetime if able world-islamic-golden-age Ramadan Ninth month of the Islamic calendar, a month of fasting world-islamic-golden-age Eid al-Fitr Festival marking the end of Ramadan world-islamic-golden-age Mosque Muslim house of worship world-islamic-golden-age Minaret Tower of a mosque from which the call to prayer is given world-islamic-golden-age Caliph Successor to Muhammad as the leader of the Muslim community world-islamic-golden-age Caliphate Government led by a caliph world-islamic-golden-age Rashidun The first four caliphs after Muhammad world-islamic-golden-age Umayyad Caliphate 661-750; capital at Damascus world-islamic-golden-age Abbasid Caliphate 750-1258; capital at Baghdad world-islamic-golden-age Sunni and Shia The two main branches of Islam, which differ over early leadership world-islamic-golden-age Damascus Umayyad capital in Syria world-islamic-golden-age Baghdad Founded in 762; the Abbasid capital and a center of learning world-islamic-golden-age House of Wisdom Library and research center in Baghdad world-islamic-golden-age Harun al-Rashid Famous Abbasid caliph, linked to Baghdad's glory world-islamic-golden-age Al-Ma'mun Caliph who supported translation and science world-islamic-golden-age Translation movement Scholars translated Greek, Persian and Indian works into Arabic world-islamic-golden-age Al-Khwarizmi Mathematician whose name gave us the word algorithm world-islamic-golden-age Algebra Name comes from al-jabr in al-Khwarizmi's book world-islamic-golden-age Ibn al-Haytham Pioneer of optics who explained how vision works world-islamic-golden-age Al-Razi Physician who wrote about measles and smallpox world-islamic-golden-age Ibn Sina (Avicenna) Physician whose Canon of Medicine was used for centuries world-islamic-golden-age Canon of Medicine Ibn Sina's encyclopedia of medicine world-islamic-golden-age Al-Zahrawi Surgeon in Spain who wrote about surgical tools world-islamic-golden-age Hospital (bimaristan) Public hospitals developed in Islamic cities world-islamic-golden-age Al-Biruni Scholar who studied astronomy, geography and many subjects world-islamic-golden-age Astrolabe Instrument used to find time and position of stars world-islamic-golden-age Algorithm Step-by-step process for solving a problem; from al-Khwarizmi's name world-islamic-golden-age Arabic numerals Digits we use today, passed on through Arab scholars from India world-islamic-golden-age Al-Idrisi Geographer who made a world map for a Norman king in 1154 world-islamic-golden-age Ibn Khaldun Historian who wrote about the rise and fall of societies world-islamic-golden-age Ibn Rushd (Averroes) Philosopher in Spain who wrote about Aristotle world-islamic-golden-age Rumi Persian poet of the 1200s world-islamic-golden-age One Thousand and One Nights Collection of tales including Aladdin and Sinbad world-islamic-golden-age Arabic calligraphy Art of beautiful writing, important in Islamic art world-islamic-golden-age Geometric patterns Repeated shapes used to decorate buildings and tiles world-islamic-golden-age Arabesque Flowing, plant-like decorative pattern world-islamic-golden-age Al-Andalus Muslim-ruled parts of Spain, 711-1492 world-islamic-golden-age Cordoba Capital of Al-Andalus with great libraries and a famous mosque world-islamic-golden-age Great Mosque of Cordoba Spain's grand mosque with red-and-white arches world-islamic-golden-age Alhambra Palace-fortress in Granada, Spain world-islamic-golden-age Dome of the Rock Shrine in Jerusalem finished in 691 world-islamic-golden-age Battle of Tours (732) Frankish victory that halted a Muslim advance into France world-islamic-golden-age Seljuk Turks Turkic dynasty that ruled much of the Middle East in the 1000s world-islamic-golden-age Ottoman Empire Empire that lasted from about 1299 to 1922 world-islamic-golden-age Suleiman the Magnificent Ottoman sultan in the 1500s world-islamic-golden-age Mehmed II Ottoman sultan who captured Constantinople in 1453 world-islamic-golden-age Istanbul Name for Constantinople under the Ottomans world-islamic-golden-age Safavid Empire Persian empire (1501-1736) that made Shia Islam the state religion world-islamic-golden-age Mughal Empire Islamic empire in India from 1526 world-islamic-golden-age Mongol sack of Baghdad (1258) Ended the Abbasid caliphate world-islamic-golden-age Silk Road Muslim merchants traveled along these trade routes world-islamic-golden-age Spice trade Muslim traders carried spices from Asia to Europe world-islamic-golden-age Paper-making Skills reached the Islamic world from China and spread to Europe world-islamic-golden-age Sugar and cotton Crops spread by Muslim farmers across the Mediterranean world-islamic-golden-age Coffee Became popular in the Islamic world by the 1400s world-islamic-golden-age Waterwheel and irrigation Islamic engineers improved ways to lift and spread water world-islamic-golden-age Al-Jazari Engineer who wrote a book of ingenious machines in 1206 world-islamic-golden-age Fatima al-Fihri Founded al-Qarawiyyin in Fez in 859, often called the oldest degree-granting university world-islamic-golden-age Mansa Musa Muslim king of Mali famous for his pilgrimage in 1324 world-islamic-golden-age Ibn Battuta Traveled about 75,000 miles across the Muslim world in the 1300s world-islamic-golden-age Middle Ages Period in Europe from about 500 to 1500 CE; also called the medieval era world-medieval-europe Medieval Of the Middle Ages world-medieval-europe Franks Germanic people who built a powerful kingdom in what is now France world-medieval-europe Charlemagne King of the Franks crowned emperor in 800 world-medieval-europe Clovis First Frankish king to unite the Franks world-medieval-europe Vikings Seafaring Norsemen who raided and traded from the late 700s world-medieval-europe Longship Narrow, fast Viking vessel world-medieval-europe Leif Erikson Norse explorer who reached North America around 1000 world-medieval-europe William the Conqueror Duke of Normandy who won England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 world-medieval-europe Battle of Hastings (1066) Norman victory that began Norman rule of England world-medieval-europe Domesday Book Survey of English land ordered by William in 1086 world-medieval-europe Feudalism System where lords gave land in exchange for loyalty and service world-medieval-europe Lord Landowner who held power over a territory world-medieval-europe Vassal Person who held land from a lord and promised service world-medieval-europe Knight Mounted soldier who served a lord world-medieval-europe Chivalry Knightly code of bravery, courtesy and honor world-medieval-europe Squire Young man training to become a knight world-medieval-europe Page Boy who started training for knighthood world-medieval-europe Manor Lord's estate with a village and farmland world-medieval-europe Serf Peasant bound to the land and to a lord world-medieval-europe Peasant Farm worker who made up most of the population world-medieval-europe Three-field system Rotating crops across three fields to keep soil healthy world-medieval-europe Castle Fortified home of a lord world-medieval-europe Moat Ditch, often water-filled, around a castle world-medieval-europe Drawbridge Bridge over a moat that could be raised world-medieval-europe Keep Strong central tower of a castle world-medieval-europe Portcullis Heavy gate lowered to block a castle entrance world-medieval-europe Siege Surrounding a castle or town to force surrender world-medieval-europe Catapult Machine that hurled stones at walls world-medieval-europe Longbow Powerful bow used by English archers world-medieval-europe Armor Protective metal covering world-medieval-europe Roman Catholic Church Dominant church in western Europe during the Middle Ages world-medieval-europe Pope Head of the Catholic Church world-medieval-europe Monastery Home of monks who prayed, worked and copied books world-medieval-europe Monk Man who lives a religious life in a monastery world-medieval-europe Nun Woman who lives a religious life in a convent world-medieval-europe Illuminated manuscript Hand-copied book decorated with gold and colors world-medieval-europe Cathedral Large and important church world-medieval-europe Gothic architecture Style with pointed arches, ribbed vaults and flying buttresses world-medieval-europe Stained glass Colored glass windows in churches world-medieval-europe Guild Association of craftsmen or merchants in a town world-medieval-europe Apprentice Young person learning a trade world-medieval-europe Charter Document granting rights to a town world-medieval-europe Magna Carta (1215) English charter limiting the king's power; signed by King John world-medieval-europe King John English king forced by barons to sign the Magna Carta world-medieval-europe Parliament English lawmaking body that grew from royal councils world-medieval-europe Eleanor of Aquitaine Powerful queen of France and later England world-medieval-europe Crusades Religious wars from 1095 to 1291, mainly to control Jerusalem world-medieval-europe Pope Urban II Called the First Crusade in 1095 world-medieval-europe Saladin Muslim leader who retook Jerusalem in 1187 world-medieval-europe Richard the Lionheart English king who led the Third Crusade world-medieval-europe Effects of the Crusades Increased trade and exchange of ideas between Europe and the Middle East world-medieval-europe Marco Polo's trip Italian merchant who traveled to China in the late 1200s world-medieval-europe Hanseatic League Alliance of northern European trading cities world-medieval-europe Black Death Plague that killed perhaps a third of Europeans, 1347-1351 world-medieval-europe Bubonic plague Disease spread by fleas on rats, cause of the Black Death world-medieval-europe Effects of the Black Death Labor shortages gave surviving workers more bargaining power world-medieval-europe Hundred Years' War Long conflict between England and France, 1337-1453 world-medieval-europe Joan of Arc French teenage heroine who helped lift the siege of Orleans in 1429 world-medieval-europe Battle of Agincourt (1415) English longbowmen won against a larger French army world-medieval-europe Peasants' Revolt (1381) English uprising against taxes world-medieval-europe Reconquista Centuries-long effort by Christian kingdoms to retake Iberia world-medieval-europe Byzantine Empire Eastern Roman Empire, ruled from Constantinople world-medieval-europe Justinian Byzantine emperor who built Hagia Sophia and organized Roman law world-medieval-europe Hagia Sophia Great church in Constantinople completed in 537 world-medieval-europe Fall of Constantinople (1453) Ottoman Turks captured the city, ending the Byzantine Empire world-medieval-europe Gutenberg Introduced the printing press with movable type in Europe around 1450 world-medieval-europe Dante Italian poet who wrote the Divine Comedy world-medieval-europe Chaucer English author of The Canterbury Tales world-medieval-europe Thomas Aquinas Scholar who tried to combine faith and reason world-medieval-europe University Medieval schools in Bologna, Paris and Oxford grew into universities world-medieval-europe Tournament Contest where knights showed skill world-medieval-europe Heraldry System of coats of arms to identify families and knights world-medieval-europe Jester Entertainer at court, often wearing bright clothes world-medieval-europe Troubadour Poet-musician in southern France world-medieval-europe Dark Ages Old name for the early Middle Ages; many historians now avoid it world-medieval-europe Holy Roman Empire Union of German and central European lands under an emperor world-medieval-europe Otto I King crowned emperor in 962, starting the Holy Roman Empire world-medieval-europe Wat Tyler Leader of the Peasants' Revolt world-medieval-europe Mesopotamia Greek for 'between the rivers'; the land between the Tigris and Euphrates world-mesopotamia Tigris and Euphrates The two rivers that watered Mesopotamia world-mesopotamia Fertile Crescent Curved area of fertile land from the Nile through Mesopotamia world-mesopotamia Sumer Southern Mesopotamia, home of some of the first cities world-mesopotamia Sumerians People who built the first known cities and invented writing world-mesopotamia Uruk One of the world's first great cities world-mesopotamia Ur Sumerian city with a large ziggurat world-mesopotamia City-state A city and surrounding land with its own government world-mesopotamia Ziggurat Stepped temple tower of Mesopotamian cities world-mesopotamia Cuneiform Wedge-shaped writing pressed into clay world-mesopotamia Stylus Reed pen used to press marks into wet clay world-mesopotamia Clay tablet Slab of clay used for writing world-mesopotamia Scribe Person trained to write and keep records world-mesopotamia Epic of Gilgamesh One of the oldest known stories, about a king and his friend Enkidu world-mesopotamia Gilgamesh Legendary king of Uruk in the oldest epic world-mesopotamia Irrigation Canals carrying river water to fields world-mesopotamia Surplus Extra food beyond what people need world-mesopotamia Barley Main grain grown in Mesopotamia world-mesopotamia Wheel Invented in Mesopotamia about 3500 BCE world-mesopotamia Plow Farm tool used to turn the soil, early versions pulled by oxen world-mesopotamia Sailboat Used on the rivers for trade world-mesopotamia Sexagesimal system Base-60 counting that gave us 60 minutes and 360 degrees world-mesopotamia Lunar calendar Calendar based on the Moon's cycles world-mesopotamia Sargon of Akkad Built the first known empire about 2300 BCE world-mesopotamia Akkadian Empire Empire created by Sargon, joining many city-states world-mesopotamia Hammurabi Babylonian king famous for his written laws world-mesopotamia Code of Hammurabi One of the earliest written law codes, about 1754 BCE world-mesopotamia Babylon Major city on the Euphrates; capital of Hammurabi's kingdom world-mesopotamia Hanging Gardens of Babylon Famed gardens, thought to be one of the Seven Wonders world-mesopotamia Nebuchadnezzar II Babylonian king who rebuilt Babylon around 600 BCE world-mesopotamia Ishtar Gate Blue glazed brick gate of Babylon world-mesopotamia Assyrians Fierce warriors from northern Mesopotamia who built a large empire world-mesopotamia Nineveh Assyrian capital with a great library world-mesopotamia Ashurbanipal Assyrian king who collected thousands of tablets in a library world-mesopotamia Persians Conquered Babylon in 539 BCE under Cyrus the Great world-mesopotamia Cyrus the Great Persian king who took Babylon world-mesopotamia Epic A long story about heroes world-mesopotamia Polytheism Belief in many gods world-mesopotamia Temple Building for worship, also a center of business in Sumer world-mesopotamia Priest Religious leader who served the gods world-mesopotamia Patron god God believed to protect a particular city world-mesopotamia Enlil Sumerian god of air and storms world-mesopotamia Inanna Sumerian goddess of love and war, later Ishtar world-mesopotamia Marduk Chief god of Babylon world-mesopotamia Mud brick Common building material world-mesopotamia Dynasty Rulers from one family world-mesopotamia Empire Many lands ruled by one government world-mesopotamia Tribute Payment from conquered people to their rulers world-mesopotamia Trade Mesopotamians traded grain and cloth for metal and stone from far away world-mesopotamia Silver shekel Weight of silver used as money world-mesopotamia Contract Written agreement; many were recorded on tablets world-mesopotamia Law code A written set of laws world-mesopotamia Eye for an eye Hammurabi's principle of matching punishments to harm, with different rules by class world-mesopotamia Social classes Kings and priests, then wealthy people, then commoners, then slaves world-mesopotamia Enheduanna Priestess of Ur and the first author known by name world-mesopotamia Cylinder seal Carved stone roller that pressed a design in clay to mark ownership world-mesopotamia Royal Standard of Ur Decorated box found in a Sumerian royal tomb world-mesopotamia Lyre Stringed instrument found in Sumerian tombs world-mesopotamia Hittites People of Anatolia who fought Babylon and Egypt world-mesopotamia Chaldeans Also called Neo-Babylonians; rebuilt Babylon after Assyria fell world-mesopotamia Sumerian King List Ancient list of rulers, mixing history and legend world-mesopotamia Tell A mound formed by ruins of ancient settlements built on each other world-mesopotamia Modern Iraq Most of ancient Mesopotamia lies in present-day Iraq world-mesopotamia Medicine Babylonian doctors wrote lists of illnesses and cures on tablets world-mesopotamia Astronomy Babylonians kept careful records of stars and planets world-mesopotamia Plimpton 322 Clay tablet showing advanced Babylonian math world-mesopotamia Mathematics Babylonians solved problems with fractions, squares and early algebra world-mesopotamia Library Assyrian kings gathered tablets to preserve knowledge world-mesopotamia Victory stele Carved stone slab recording a ruler's win world-mesopotamia Standard of weights Merchants used set weights to trade fairly world-mesopotamia Renaissance French for 'rebirth'; era of new interest in art and learning in Europe, about 1300-1600 world-renaissance-reformation Where it began Italy, in rich trading city-states like Florence world-renaissance-reformation Florence Italian city where the Renaissance flowered world-renaissance-reformation Medici family Rich Florence bankers who paid for many artists world-renaissance-reformation Lorenzo de' Medici Florentine ruler called the Magnificent, patron of artists world-renaissance-reformation Patron Person who gives money to support an artist world-renaissance-reformation Humanism Focus on human abilities and the study of classical texts world-renaissance-reformation Petrarch Italian scholar called the father of humanism world-renaissance-reformation Classical learning Study of ancient Greece and Rome world-renaissance-reformation Leonardo da Vinci Painter, inventor and scientist who painted the Mona Lisa world-renaissance-reformation Mona Lisa Famous portrait by Leonardo, now in the Louvre world-renaissance-reformation The Last Supper Leonardo's wall painting in Milan world-renaissance-reformation Michelangelo Artist who sculpted David and painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling world-renaissance-reformation David (statue) Michelangelo's marble sculpture finished in 1504 world-renaissance-reformation Sistine Chapel Chapel in the Vatican with Michelangelo's ceiling paintings world-renaissance-reformation Raphael Painter known for harmony, including The School of Athens world-renaissance-reformation Botticelli Painter of The Birth of Venus world-renaissance-reformation Donatello Sculptor who revived lifelike statues world-renaissance-reformation Brunelleschi Architect who built the dome of Florence Cathedral world-renaissance-reformation Perspective Technique that makes flat paintings look three-dimensional world-renaissance-reformation Realism Showing people and nature as they look world-renaissance-reformation Fresco Painting on wet plaster world-renaissance-reformation Sfumato Soft blending of tones used by Leonardo world-renaissance-reformation Artemisia Gentileschi Early Baroque painter, one of the first women to gain fame in Europe world-renaissance-reformation Sofonisba Anguissola Italian portrait painter who became a court painter in Spain world-renaissance-reformation Northern Renaissance Movement in northern Europe including Flanders and Germany world-renaissance-reformation Jan van Eyck Flemish painter who used oil paints in detailed scenes world-renaissance-reformation Albrecht Durer German artist famous for woodcuts and engravings world-renaissance-reformation Pieter Bruegel Flemish painter of village life world-renaissance-reformation Johannes Gutenberg Introduced movable-type printing in Europe around 1450 world-renaissance-reformation Printing press Machine that made books cheaper and spread ideas fast world-renaissance-reformation Gutenberg Bible First major book printed with movable type in Europe world-renaissance-reformation Literacy More people learned to read once books were cheaper world-renaissance-reformation William Shakespeare English playwright, 1564-1616 world-renaissance-reformation Hamlet A Shakespeare tragedy about a Danish prince world-renaissance-reformation Globe Theatre London playhouse where many Shakespeare plays were staged world-renaissance-reformation Miguel de Cervantes Spanish author of Don Quixote world-renaissance-reformation Machiavelli Italian writer of The Prince, about power world-renaissance-reformation Thomas More English writer of Utopia world-renaissance-reformation Erasmus Dutch scholar who urged church reform and good education world-renaissance-reformation Copernicus Proposed in 1543 that Earth moves around the Sun world-renaissance-reformation Galileo Used a telescope to observe moons of Jupiter and supported the Sun-centered view world-renaissance-reformation Johannes Kepler Described planets' elliptical orbits world-renaissance-reformation Vesalius Anatomist who wrote an accurate book on the human body in 1543 world-renaissance-reformation Scientific Revolution Era when new ways of studying nature using observation and experiments grew world-renaissance-reformation Reformation 16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church, leading to Protestant churches world-renaissance-reformation Martin Luther German monk who began the Reformation in 1517 world-renaissance-reformation 95 Theses Luther's list of complaints about church practices, 1517 world-renaissance-reformation Indulgence Church-granted forgiveness of penalties for sin, which Luther criticized world-renaissance-reformation Protestant Christians who left the Catholic Church in the Reformation world-renaissance-reformation Lutheranism Church that followed Luther's teachings world-renaissance-reformation John Calvin French reformer who worked in Geneva world-renaissance-reformation Henry VIII English king who broke with Rome and formed the Church of England world-renaissance-reformation Church of England Created in the 1530s with the king as its head world-renaissance-reformation Elizabeth I English queen from 1558 to 1603; her era saw the defeat of the Spanish Armada world-renaissance-reformation Spanish Armada (1588) Failed Spanish invasion fleet defeated by England world-renaissance-reformation Counter-Reformation Catholic Church's reforms in response to the Protestant movement world-renaissance-reformation Council of Trent Church meeting (1545-1563) that set out Catholic reforms world-renaissance-reformation Jesuits Catholic order founded by Ignatius of Loyola, known for education world-renaissance-reformation Peace of Augsburg (1555) Let German princes choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their lands world-renaissance-reformation Thirty Years' War 1618-1648 conflict in Europe, partly over religion world-renaissance-reformation Peace of Westphalia (1648) Ended the Thirty Years' War world-renaissance-reformation Vernacular Everyday language of a region; Luther translated the Bible into German world-renaissance-reformation Secular Not tied to religion world-renaissance-reformation Banking Renaissance banks in Italy helped trade and travel world-renaissance-reformation Merchant class Business people who gained wealth and influence world-renaissance-reformation City-state City and nearby land with its own rule, as in Italy world-renaissance-reformation Venice Wealthy trading city built on islands world-renaissance-reformation Chaucer vs Dante Dante wrote in Italian; Chaucer in English, helping vernacular writing world-renaissance-reformation Medici Bank Led the way in Renaissance banking world-renaissance-reformation Cathedral of Florence Topped by Brunelleschi's dome world-renaissance-reformation Vitruvian Man Leonardo's drawing of the ideal proportions of a man world-renaissance-reformation Anatomy Study of the body; artists studied it to paint lifelike figures world-renaissance-reformation Elizabethan Age Period of Queen Elizabeth I when English arts flourished world-renaissance-reformation Causes of WWI Militarism, alliances, imperialism and nationalism (MAIN) world-wars-global-overview Militarism Building up armies and weapons world-wars-global-overview Alliance system Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) versus Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) world-wars-global-overview Assassination at Sarajevo June 28, 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand was killed, setting off the war world-wars-global-overview July Crisis Weeks of diplomacy and ultimatums that led to war in 1914 world-wars-global-overview Schlieffen Plan German plan to defeat France quickly before turning to Russia world-wars-global-overview Western Front Line of trenches across France and Belgium world-wars-global-overview Eastern Front Fighting between Germany/Austria and Russia world-wars-global-overview Battle of the Marne (1914) Allied victory that stopped the German advance on Paris world-wars-global-overview Battle of Verdun (1916) Long, costly battle between France and Germany world-wars-global-overview Battle of the Somme (1916) British offensive with enormous casualties world-wars-global-overview Gallipoli (1915) Failed Allied attack on the Ottoman Empire's coast world-wars-global-overview Machine gun Weapon that made attacks deadly for soldiers crossing open ground world-wars-global-overview Poison gas Chemical weapon first widely used in WWI; later banned world-wars-global-overview Tank Armored vehicle first used by Britain in 1916 world-wars-global-overview Airplane in WWI Used first for scouting, then for fighting world-wars-global-overview U-boat German submarine world-wars-global-overview Russian Revolution (1917) Russia's tsar fell, and the Bolsheviks under Lenin took power world-wars-global-overview Vladimir Lenin Bolshevik leader who founded the Soviet state world-wars-global-overview Nicholas II Last tsar of Russia world-wars-global-overview Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) Russia left the war and gave up land world-wars-global-overview Armistice Day November 11, 1918, when fighting stopped on the Western Front world-wars-global-overview Treaty of Versailles (1919) Peace treaty that blamed Germany and made it pay reparations world-wars-global-overview Reparations Payments for war damages world-wars-global-overview War guilt clause Treaty article that made Germany accept blame for the war world-wars-global-overview League of Nations Organization to keep peace, set up in 1920 world-wars-global-overview Collapse of empires The Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German and Russian empires ended after WWI world-wars-global-overview Great Depression Worldwide economic crisis in the 1930s that helped extremists rise world-wars-global-overview Fascism Government by a dictator with strong nationalism and no free opposition world-wars-global-overview Benito Mussolini Fascist dictator of Italy from 1922 world-wars-global-overview Nazi Party German party led by Adolf Hitler world-wars-global-overview Hitler's rise (1933) Hitler became chancellor of Germany in January 1933 world-wars-global-overview Appeasement Giving in to demands to avoid war, as at Munich in 1938 world-wars-global-overview Munich Agreement (1938) Britain and France let Germany take part of Czechoslovakia world-wars-global-overview Invasion of Poland (Sept. 1, 1939) Start of World War II in Europe world-wars-global-overview Blitzkrieg German 'lightning war' using tanks, planes and fast movement world-wars-global-overview Fall of France (1940) Germany took France in six weeks world-wars-global-overview Dunkirk (1940) Evacuation of over 300,000 Allied troops from France world-wars-global-overview Battle of Britain (1940) Royal Air Force defeated German air attacks world-wars-global-overview The Blitz German bombing of British cities in 1940-41 world-wars-global-overview Operation Barbarossa (1941) Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union world-wars-global-overview Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43) Soviet victory that turned the tide on the Eastern Front world-wars-global-overview El Alamein (1942) British victory in Egypt against German-Italian forces world-wars-global-overview Pearl Harbor Japan's attack on the US on December 7, 1941 world-wars-global-overview Japanese expansion Japan invaded China in the 1930s and spread across Asia in 1941-42 world-wars-global-overview Nanjing (Nanking) 1937 Japan captured the Chinese capital after a hard battle; many civilians suffered world-wars-global-overview Battle of Midway (1942) US Navy victory that weakened Japan's carriers world-wars-global-overview Holocaust Nazi murder of six million Jews and millions of others world-wars-global-overview Resistance movements Secret groups that opposed Nazi occupation world-wars-global-overview Kindertransport Rescue program that took thousands of Jewish children from Germany to Britain world-wars-global-overview Righteous Among the Nations Honor for non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews world-wars-global-overview Raoul Wallenberg Swedish diplomat who saved thousands of Hungarian Jews world-wars-global-overview Oskar Schindler German businessman who saved over a thousand Jewish workers world-wars-global-overview D-Day (June 6, 1944) Allied invasion of Normandy world-wars-global-overview Liberation of Paris (Aug. 1944) Allied forces freed the French capital world-wars-global-overview Yalta Conference Allied leaders planned the post-war world world-wars-global-overview Potsdam Conference (1945) Allied leaders met in Germany after Germany's surrender world-wars-global-overview V-E Day May 8, 1945, victory in Europe world-wars-global-overview Hiroshima and Nagasaki Atomic bombs dropped in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender world-wars-global-overview V-J Day Japan's surrender announced August 15, 1945; signed September 2 world-wars-global-overview Total deaths WWII killed an estimated 70 to 85 million people world-wars-global-overview Nuremberg Trials International court trials of Nazi leaders for war crimes world-wars-global-overview United Nations Founded in 1945 to maintain peace world-wars-global-overview Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) UN statement of basic rights for all people world-wars-global-overview Decolonization After WWII, many colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence world-wars-global-overview Cold War begins The US and USSR became rivals after the war world-wars-global-overview Marshall Plan US aid to rebuild Western Europe world-wars-global-overview Allied Powers Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the US and China world-wars-global-overview Axis Powers Germany, Italy and Japan world-wars-global-overview Division of Germany After WWII, Germany was divided into East and West world-wars-global-overview Occupation of Japan US-led occupation, 1945-1952, helped Japan write a new constitution world-wars-global-overview Chinese Civil War Fighting between Nationalists and Communists, resumed after WWII; Communists won in 1949 world-wars-global-overview Indian Army in WWII Over 2.5 million Indian volunteers served world-wars-global-overview Navajo Code Talkers Used their language to send secret Pacific messages world-wars-global-overview Anne Frank's diary Diary of a Jewish girl hiding in Amsterdam from 1942 to 1944 world-wars-global-overview