Behaviorism: School of thought studying observable behavior Cognitive psychology: Study of mental processes such as memory and thinking Psychoanalytic perspective: Freud's view that unconscious drives shape behavior Humanistic psychology: Focus on growth, free will and self-actualization Biopsychology: Study of how biology influences behavior Wilhelm Wundt: Founded the first psychology lab in 1879 Hypothesis: A testable prediction Independent variable: The factor the researcher manipulates Dependent variable: The outcome measured Random assignment: Placing participants into groups by chance Control group: Group not receiving the treatment Double-blind study: Neither participants nor researchers know who gets the treatment Placebo effect: Improvement due to expectation, not the treatment Correlation: A relationship between two variables; does not prove cause Correlation coefficient: A number from -1 to +1 showing strength and direction of relationship Operational definition: A precise statement of how a variable is measured Informed consent: Participants agree after learning what is involved Neuron: A nerve cell Dendrite: Receives signals into a neuron Axon: Carries signals away from the cell body Action potential: An electrical impulse along an axon Synapse: The gap between neurons Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger sent across a synapse Dopamine: Neurotransmitter linked to reward and movement Serotonin: Neurotransmitter affecting mood, sleep and appetite Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter involved in muscles and memory Endorphins: Natural pain relievers Central nervous system: The brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord Sympathetic nervous system: Prepares the body for action Parasympathetic nervous system: Calms the body Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature and hormone release Hippocampus: Forms new explicit memories Amygdala: Processes fear and emotion Cerebellum: Coordinates balance and movement Frontal lobe: Planning, judgment and movement Broca's area: Involved in producing speech Wernicke's area: Involved in understanding language Corpus callosum: Band of fibers connecting the brain's hemispheres Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to change through experience Sensation: Detecting stimuli with sense organs Perception: Interpreting sensory information Absolute threshold: The smallest stimulus detected half the time Just noticeable difference: The smallest change that can be detected Sensory adaptation: Reduced response to unchanging stimuli Gestalt principles: Rules for how we organize perceptions into wholes Depth perception: Judging distance Binocular cues: Depth cues that need both eyes Bottom-up processing: Perception built from sensory details Top-down processing: Perception guided by expectations Circadian rhythm: The roughly 24-hour body clock REM sleep: Sleep stage with vivid dreams and active brain Consciousness: Awareness of ourselves and our surroundings Classical conditioning: Learning by associating two stimuli Unconditioned stimulus: Naturally triggers a response Conditioned stimulus: Neutral stimulus that comes to trigger a response Extinction: Fading of a learned response when the association stops Operant conditioning: Learning through consequences Reinforcement: Anything that increases a behavior Punishment: Anything that decreases a behavior Positive reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase behavior Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses Observational learning: Learning by watching others Albert Bandura: Bobo doll studies on observational learning Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning using dogs B.F. Skinner: Pioneer of operant conditioning Encoding: Getting information into memory Storage: Keeping information over time Retrieval: Getting information out of memory Working memory: Short-term memory used to process information Explicit memory: Memory of facts and experiences you can state Implicit memory: Memory shown through skills and habits Mnemonic device: A memory aid Spacing effect: Learning is better spread out than crammed Retroactive interference: New learning disrupts old memories Proactive interference: Old learning disrupts new memories Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories Heuristic: A mental shortcut Confirmation bias: Seeking information that supports existing beliefs Functional fixedness: Seeing objects only in their usual uses Algorithm: A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution Intelligence quotient: Score derived from standardized intelligence tests Reliability: Consistency of a test Validity: Whether a test measures what it claims to Standardization: Uniform procedures and norms for a test Developmental psychology: Study of change across the lifespan Piaget's stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational Object permanence: Knowing that things exist when not seen Conservation: Understanding that amount stays the same despite shape change Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing another person's viewpoint Attachment: Emotional bond between infant and caregiver Harlow's monkeys: Showed infants need comfort contact as well as food Authoritative parenting: High warmth with firm limits Erikson's stages: Eight psychosocial crises across life Zone of proximal development: Tasks a child can do with help; Vygotsky's idea Maslow's hierarchy: Needs from physiological to self-actualization Intrinsic motivation: Doing something for its own enjoyment Cannon-Bard theory: Emotion and body arousal occur at the same time Cognitive dissonance: Discomfort when beliefs and actions conflict Fundamental attribution error: Overestimating personality and underestimating situation when explaining others' behavior Conformity: Adjusting behavior to fit a group Bystander effect: People are less likely to help when others are present Big Five traits: Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism Id, ego, superego: Freud's three parts of personality Defense mechanism: Unconscious strategy to reduce anxiety Locus of control: Belief about whether outcomes come from inside or outside you Psychological disorder: Patterns of thought or behavior that cause distress or impairment Anxiety disorder: Excessive fear or worry Mood disorder: Disturbance of emotion such as depression Cognitive-behavioral therapy: Treatment changing unhelpful thoughts and behaviors Psychotherapy: Treatment through talking with a trained professional Antidepressant: Medication treating depression Free flashcards from Peabody at peabody.kids/flashcards/tp-ap-psychology