{
 "source": "https://peabody.kids/flashcards/tp-logical-fallacies",
 "id": "tp-logical-fallacies",
 "title": "Logical Fallacies",
 "category": "test-prep",
 "subject": "Logic",
 "levels": [
  "6-8",
  "9-12",
  "college",
  "adult"
 ],
 "description": "Common errors in reasoning, each with a plain description and example.",
 "tags": [
  "logic",
  "fallacies",
  "critical-thinking"
 ],
 "frontLabel": "Fallacy",
 "backLabel": "What goes wrong",
 "cards": [
  [
   "Ad hominem",
   "Attacking the person instead of the argument",
   "You can't trust her plan; she's always late."
  ],
  [
   "Straw man",
   "Misrepresenting someone's view to make it easier to attack"
  ],
  [
   "False dilemma",
   "Presenting only two options when more exist",
   "You're either with us or against us."
  ],
  [
   "Slippery slope",
   "Claiming one step will inevitably lead to extreme results without evidence"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to authority",
   "Treating a claim as true only because an authority said it, especially outside their field"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to popularity",
   "Arguing something is true because many people believe it"
  ],
  [
   "Bandwagon",
   "Urging someone to do it because everyone else is"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to tradition",
   "Arguing something is right because it has always been done"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to novelty",
   "Arguing something is better because it is new"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to emotion",
   "Using feelings in place of evidence"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to pity",
   "Using sympathy to win agreement"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to fear",
   "Using scare tactics instead of evidence"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to nature",
   "Claiming something is good because it is natural"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to ignorance",
   "Claiming something is true because it has not been proven false"
  ],
  [
   "Circular reasoning",
   "The conclusion is assumed in the premise",
   "He is honest because he never lies."
  ],
  [
   "Begging the question",
   "Treating the thing to be proved as already true"
  ],
  [
   "Hasty generalization",
   "Drawing a broad conclusion from too few examples"
  ],
  [
   "Anecdotal evidence",
   "Using a personal story as proof of a general claim"
  ],
  [
   "Cherry-picking",
   "Choosing only data that supports your claim"
  ],
  [
   "Post hoc ergo propter hoc",
   "Assuming A caused B because B followed A"
  ],
  [
   "Correlation is not causation",
   "Two things changing together does not show one causes the other"
  ],
  [
   "Red herring",
   "Introducing an irrelevant topic to distract"
  ],
  [
   "Tu quoque",
   "Dismissing a point because the speaker does the same thing"
  ],
  [
   "Genetic fallacy",
   "Judging an idea by its origin instead of its merits"
  ],
  [
   "Guilt by association",
   "Rejecting an idea because of who supports it"
  ],
  [
   "Poisoning the well",
   "Discrediting a source before it can speak"
  ],
  [
   "Equivocation",
   "Using a word in two different senses in one argument"
  ],
  [
   "Composition fallacy",
   "Assuming what is true of parts is true of the whole"
  ],
  [
   "Division fallacy",
   "Assuming what is true of the whole is true of each part"
  ],
  [
   "Burden of proof shift",
   "Demanding others disprove a claim instead of supporting it"
  ],
  [
   "No true Scotsman",
   "Redefining a group to exclude counterexamples"
  ],
  [
   "Moving the goalposts",
   "Changing the standard of proof after it has been met"
  ],
  [
   "Loaded question",
   "A question that contains an unfair assumption",
   "Have you stopped cheating?"
  ],
  [
   "Middle ground fallacy",
   "Assuming the truth must lie halfway between two positions"
  ],
  [
   "Texas sharpshooter",
   "Finding patterns after the fact and ignoring the rest of the data"
  ],
  [
   "Gambler's fallacy",
   "Believing past random events change future odds"
  ],
  [
   "Sunk cost fallacy",
   "Continuing because of what was already invested"
  ],
  [
   "Special pleading",
   "Excusing your own case from a rule without good reason"
  ],
  [
   "False cause",
   "Claiming a causal link without proof"
  ],
  [
   "Non sequitur",
   "A conclusion that does not follow from the premises"
  ],
  [
   "Affirming the consequent",
   "If P then Q; Q, therefore P (invalid)"
  ],
  [
   "Denying the antecedent",
   "If P then Q; not P, therefore not Q (invalid)"
  ],
  [
   "Modus ponens",
   "If P then Q; P; therefore Q (valid)"
  ],
  [
   "Modus tollens",
   "If P then Q; not Q; therefore not P (valid)"
  ],
  [
   "Syllogism",
   "A deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion"
  ],
  [
   "Deductive reasoning",
   "Moving from general premises to a certain conclusion"
  ],
  [
   "Inductive reasoning",
   "Moving from specific cases to a probable general conclusion"
  ],
  [
   "Sound argument",
   "A valid argument with true premises"
  ],
  [
   "Valid argument",
   "A conclusion that follows logically from the premises"
  ],
  [
   "Weak analogy",
   "Comparing things that are not alike in relevant ways"
  ],
  [
   "Ambiguity fallacy",
   "Relying on unclear wording to mislead"
  ],
  [
   "Fallacy of the single cause",
   "Blaming one factor for a complex outcome"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to accomplishment",
   "Dismissing a claim because of someone's success or lack of it"
  ],
  [
   "Argument from incredulity",
   "Claiming something is false because it is hard to imagine"
  ],
  [
   "Naturalistic fallacy",
   "Deriving what ought to be from what is"
  ],
  [
   "Survivorship bias",
   "Focusing on successes and overlooking the failures"
  ],
  [
   "Confirmation bias",
   "Favoring information that fits existing beliefs"
  ],
  [
   "False equivalence",
   "Treating two very different things as equal"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to the stone",
   "Dismissing a claim as absurd without showing why"
  ],
  [
   "Hasty conclusion from small sample",
   "Overgeneralizing from limited cases"
  ],
  [
   "Ad populum",
   "Latin name for appeal to the crowd"
  ],
  [
   "Ad verecundiam",
   "Latin name for appeal to authority"
  ],
  [
   "Ad ignorantiam",
   "Latin name for appeal to ignorance"
  ],
  [
   "Argumentum ad baculum",
   "Appeal to force or threats"
  ],
  [
   "Reductio ad absurdum",
   "Showing a claim is false by following it to an absurd result"
  ],
  [
   "Ad nauseam",
   "Repeating a claim until people accept it"
  ],
  [
   "Fallacy fallacy",
   "Assuming a conclusion is false because the argument for it is flawed"
  ],
  [
   "Is-ought problem",
   "Facts alone do not tell us what we should do"
  ],
  [
   "Occam's razor",
   "Prefer the simpler explanation that fits the facts"
  ],
  [
   "Hume's guillotine",
   "Another name for the is-ought gap"
  ],
  [
   "Burden of proof",
   "The person making a claim must support it"
  ],
  [
   "Falsifiability",
   "A claim should be testable and possible to prove wrong"
  ],
  [
   "Argument from silence",
   "Concluding something from the lack of evidence against it"
  ],
  [
   "Fallacy of composition example",
   "Each player is good, so the team must be good"
  ],
  [
   "Appeal to money",
   "Assuming something is right because it is expensive or profitable"
  ],
  [
   "Whataboutism",
   "Deflecting criticism by pointing to someone else's faults"
  ]
 ]
}