Metaphysics: The study of the basic nature of reality Epistemology: The study of knowledge and how we know things Ethics: The study of right and wrong, good and bad Logic: The study of correct reasoning Aesthetics: The study of beauty and art Ontology: The study of what exists Dualism: The view that mind and body are distinct kinds of things Monism: The view that reality is made of one kind of thing Materialism: The view that everything is physical Idealism: The view that reality is fundamentally mental Empiricism: Knowledge comes mainly from sense experience Rationalism: Knowledge comes mainly from reason Skepticism: Doubt about whether we can have certain knowledge A priori: Knowable independent of experience A posteriori: Knowable only through experience Analytic statement: True by the meaning of its terms Synthetic statement: True or false depending on how the world is Epistemic justification: Good reasons for a belief Solipsism: The view that only one's own mind is certain to exist Cogito: 'I think, therefore I am'; Descartes' starting point Free will: The ability to choose among alternatives Determinism: Every event is caused by prior events Compatibilism: Free will and determinism can both be true Libertarianism (free will): We have free will and determinism is false Mind-body problem: How mental states relate to physical states Personal identity: What makes someone the same person over time Consciousness: Subjective awareness and experience Qualia: The felt quality of experiences, like redness Utilitarianism: The right action produces the greatest good for the greatest number Deontology: Morality is about duties and rules, whatever the outcome Virtue ethics: Morality is about developing good character Categorical imperative: Kant's rule to act only as you would will everyone to act Consequentialism: An action's rightness depends on its results Moral relativism: Moral truths depend on culture or individual Moral objectivism: Some moral claims are true regardless of opinion Egoism: People should act in their own self-interest Altruism: Acting for the benefit of others Social contract theory: Political authority comes from an agreement among people Natural rights: Rights people have simply by being human Justice as fairness: Rawls' idea that just principles are those chosen behind a veil of ignorance Veil of ignorance: Choosing rules without knowing your place in society Existentialism: Individuals create their own meaning through free choices Nihilism: The view that life lacks inherent meaning or value Absurdism: Seeking meaning in a universe that offers none; Camus Stoicism: Peace comes from accepting what we cannot control Epicureanism: The good life is pleasure understood as calm and freedom from pain Cynicism (ancient): Living simply and in accordance with nature, rejecting convention Pragmatism: The truth of an idea lies in its practical effects Phenomenology: Study of the structures of experience Hermeneutics: Theory of interpretation Positivism: Only knowledge from scientific observation is valid Logical positivism: Meaningful statements must be verifiable or logically true Falsifiability: Karl Popper's idea that scientific claims must be testable and refutable Paradigm shift: A major change in scientific thinking; Kuhn Occam's razor: Prefer the simplest explanation Problem of induction: We cannot logically prove that the future will resemble the past Problem of evil: How can evil exist if a perfect god exists? Theodicy: An attempt to explain evil in a world made by a good god Cosmological argument: Argument for a first cause of the universe Teleological argument: Argument from apparent design Ontological argument: Argument for god from the concept of a perfect being Pascal's wager: A practical argument about whether to believe in god Agnosticism: The view that the existence of god is unknown or unknowable Allegory of the cave: Plato's image of people mistaking shadows for reality Theory of forms: Plato's view that ideal abstract forms are the true reality Golden mean: Aristotle's idea that virtue lies between extremes Eudaimonia: Flourishing or living well Telos: Purpose or end of a thing Trolley problem: A thought experiment about choosing to harm one to save many Thought experiment: Imagined scenario used to test an idea Brain in a vat: Thought experiment questioning how we know our experiences are real Ship of Theseus: Puzzle: is a ship the same if all its parts are replaced? Chinese room: Searle's argument that running a program is not the same as understanding Turing test: A test of whether a machine's conversation is indistinguishable from a human's Experience machine: Nozick's thought experiment about whether pleasure is all that matters Social justice: Fair distribution of advantages and burdens in society Distributive justice: Fair allocation of resources Liberty: Freedom from unjust restraint Harm principle: Mill: society may limit freedom only to prevent harm to others Paternalism: Overriding someone's choices for their own good Tragedy of the commons: Shared resources are overused when each acts alone Authority: The right to command and be obeyed Civil disobedience: Openly breaking an unjust law to appeal to conscience Anarchism: The view that the state is unnecessary or harmful Pluralism: Acceptance of multiple values and views Relativism: Truth or value depends on perspective Hedonism: Pleasure is the highest good Meritocracy: Position based on ability and achievement Authenticity: Living true to one's own values Bad faith: Sartre's term for denying one's freedom The Other: A concept in philosophy about how we recognize those different from us Intentionality: The mind's property of being about something Emergence: Complex properties arising from simpler parts Reductionism: Explaining a whole by its parts Holism: The whole has properties not found in its parts Syllogism: A deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion Soundness: A valid argument with true premises Free flashcards from Peabody at peabody.kids/flashcards/tp-philosophy-concepts